Freedom of expression and the enlightenment

Chapter Two: Enlightenment Thinkers
 
As previously demonstrated, the Enlightenment was not a spontaneous 
movement—many factors contributed to the buildup of this burst of reason and 
intellectual development; however, the central period of the Enlightenment occurred 
during the eighteenth century. This was a period of “fundamental transformation, 
challenging [of] accepted values, and revolution.”
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One of the challenges of this century 
was the debate over the “right” to freedom of speech, which was expanded over the 
course of the Enlightenment. Of course, the eighteenth century did not witness the birth 
of liberty, but it was “a time in which freedom of expression was first subject to relatively 
widespread public debate.”
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This freedom of expression encompassed both freedom of 
speech and freedom of the press, as historians have concluded that the 
philosophes
typically did not distinguish between the two and used similar arguments to defend both 
freedoms.
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Many different 
philosophes
contributed to the Enlightenment debate on 
freedom of expression and an analysis of all the different works available would be 
impossible in this chapter; however, a few key thinkers stood out as central to the debate. 
These thinkers all contributed a number of writings defending toleration and freedom of 
speech. They were both influenced by other thinkers and in turn influenced others. An 
52
Israel, 
Democratic Enlightenment
, 6. 
53
Joris van Eijnatten, “In Praise of Moderate Enlightenment: A Taxonomy of Early Modern Arguments in 
Favor of Freedom of Expression,” in 
Freedom of Speech: The History of an Idea
, ed. Elizabeth Powers 
(Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2011), 40.
54
Ibid, 20.

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25 
analysis of the works of Voltaire (born Francois-Marie Arouet), Charles de Secondat, 
Baron de Montesquieu, and Karl Friedrich Bahrdt offers considerable insight into the 
Enlightenment view of freedom of expression.
Voltaire and Montesquieu were both French, while Bahrdt was German. 
According to one historian, French policy at the end of the seventeenth century and 
during the eighteenth century was designed to “keep philosophy subordinate to 
theology.” Furthermore, the king “desired uniformity, order, and hierarchy, intellectual as 
well as political social, and ecclesiastical.”
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This desire for control of the minds of the 
people led to strict censorship laws designed to prevent the publication of works that 
could damage the church or state. Although the nature of censorship in France, Germany, 
and elsewhere, shifted from primarily being directed by the church to censorship by the 
state of “politically undesirable texts, erotica, unorthodox fringe theology, and radical 
philosophy advocating Naturalism, fatalism, and Spinozism,” censorship was still 
prevalent.
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Thus, even though the shift from ecclesiastical to secular censorship was seen 
as “liberalization,” it did not actually bring about greater freedom of thought, since the 
state became more efficient at censoring authors than the church had been.
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Despite 
these censorship laws, many banned works were still published because “perceptions of 
what was ‘illicit’ were shifting,” and there was a “burgeoning market for illicit books” as 
people were more willing to flout conventional laws.
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The book market, in France and 
elsewhere, was booming, so much so that it was referred to as “the age of print.” Between 
1701 and 1775 in France, book production tripled; there were hundreds of newspaper 
55
Israel,