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Third Phase of Training Design
The third phase consists in establishing with accuracy in which training events
each objective is presented to the learner and what the duration of this/these
training event(s) is. It is also recommended to determine the prerequisites of
each objective in order to establish the training sequence.
The outcome of this phase is the remaining part of the training plans and part
of the training event plans. (The end of the training event plans is done when
the courseware itself is produced.)
This software uses database techniques to facilitate the creation and the
management of data for the three training phases. It includes helps to follow
the method such as list of action verbs, definition of the training event types
and their parameters, reporting facilities and decision aids for sequencing.
Teamwork in Air Traffic Control
The ATS system relies on good teamwork to achieve its goals. The greater familiarity of team members with each other, than is the case for flight crew in all but small airlines, makes achieving standard procedures simpler. In addition, fewer procedures are likely to be required and their application may be able to be slightly less prescriptive. However, breakdowns in teamwork can and do occur, and the consequences can be serious.
Operationally, the ATS team can be as small as the controllers and assistants working together in an operational area, or large enough to embrace associated ATC units such as APP, TWR and GND, or wide area coverage within or between ACCs. Supporting operational staff such as flow managers, planners, supervisors, are also important and controllers rely on effective co-operation with them to optimise their work.
Taking a different view, the team can be seen to include the aircraft and airlines to which ATS provide service which is both safe and effficient. At the organisational level, it can be seen to embrace the corporate management which provides direction to unit level and the strategic links to customer organisations, government, regulatory bodies, and international ATC organisations
In ATC, a team is defined as a group of two or more persons who interact dynamically and interdependently with assigned specific roles, functions and responsibilities. They have to adapt continuously to each other to ensure the establishment of a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of air traffic
At the behavioural level, team-based activity comprises two components
− Teamwork refers to those instances where actors within a team or network coordinate their behaviour in order to achieve tasks related to the team’s goals.
− Taskwork refers to those tasks that are conducted by team-members individually or in isolation from another. Obviously, co-ordination between team-members in a team of ATCOs is central in achieving the aforementioned safe, orderly and expeditious flow of traffic. As well as understanding team co-ordination at a behavioural level, it is important to be aware of the level of underlying cognitive processes, of which, according to Klein (2000), the most important are:
− Control of attention
− Shared situation awareness
− Shared mental models
− Application of strategies and heuristics to make decisions, solve problems, and plan
− Metacognition1
Klein (2000) distinguishes planning teams and action teams. The cognitive processes are different.
− The job of a planning team is to produce a plan.
− The job of an action team is to accomplish a task
Klein mentions an ATC team as an example of a typical action team, in which the task is moving airplanes across a sector. It may seem contradictory to define an ATC team as an action team rather than a planning team, since some team members are even called planners. However, the output of a team in ATC is the sequence of actions that implement a safe and expeditious flow of air traffic. In generating this output, the team takes into account different plans at different levels, some of these plans (i.e. the flight plans of individual aircraft) need modification by a PC. Thus, the job of a team in ATC is not to produce a plan, such as a planning team, e.g. for a military air campaign at an Air Operations Centre (AOC), need to do. According to Klein, there are often differences in cognitive processes between action teams and planning teams. Klein found that:
− Information management (control of attention, including information seeking) is critical for action teams in all of the professional settings he encountered;
− Action teams struggle less with shared mental models (of the roles and functions and the ways the task is to be performed) than planning teams. For ATCOs, this is due to their high level of expertise and the structure of their work.
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