English and ukrainian syntax. Typology of the word-group and the sentence typology of the Syntactic Systems

The Compound Predicate and Ways of Expressing It
There exists complete isomorphism in the nature, meaning and structural types of the compound predicate in the contrasted languages. Their subtypes are generally common too. Namely:
1. The Compound Verbal Modal Predicate which comprises a modal verb or its equivalent and the infinitive or gerund (the latter in English only). The modal verb expresses the modal lexical meaning of the pred icate as possible, impossible, desirable, obligatory, necessary, certain/un certain, planned, etc. For example: "You ought to be working now." (Joyce) "We'd better go home." (Galsworthy) Ви мали б працювати зараз/ Ви повинні бути на роботі зараз. "That needs a bit of think ing". (A. Christie) Над цим треба/необхідно трохи подумати; I couldn't help smiling. (Maugham) Я не міг втриматися від посмішки.
Common in both languages is also the compound verbal predicate, which comprises verbs denoting desire, intention, determination, hope, attempt, etc. Eg: I want to go home. (Banks) "I'm going to be at the concert..." (Parker) Я хочу йти додому. Я маю намір бути/хочу прийти на концерт... І was trying to learn German. (Maugham) Я пробував учити німецьку мову. "I've tried to do the best I can for her." (F. King) Я намагався зробити для неї все, що міг. Не did not want to speak, not to anyone. (Lawrence) Він не хотів розмовляти, ні з ким.
The compound modal verbal predicate may include phraseological units/set expressions: He said I should take it easy a bit. (D. Lessing) Він казав, щоб я це не брав близько до серця... she was only too included to take advantage of his weakness. (Galsworthy) ... їй тільки дуже кортіло скористатися його слабкістю. "You'd better get off here," Charlie said. (D. Lessing) "Тобі краще б вийти тут", - сказав Чарлі. "I'd better get up by the driver." (Mansfield) Я б краще сіла коло шофера.
2. The Compound Verbal Aspective Predicate consisting of verbs5. The mixed types of the compound predicate are of isomorphic nature in English and Ukrainian. They are a) the compound modal nominal predicate: "It must have been one of the servants". (Maugham) The boy must be forty by now. (Galsworthy) Цьому хлопцеві має бути сорок років. Вона може бути вчителькою; b) the compound phrasal nominal predicate: The scared lad continued to remain silent. (Saroyan) Заляканий учень продовжував бути мовчазним/продовжував мовчати; с) the compound modal phrasal predicate: "You must stop pretending ignorance." (Maugham) "Ти мусиш кинути прикидатися невинною".
Table 27

Simple Predicate

Compound Predicate

Language

Verbal

Nominal

Phraseological

Secondary

Contaminated

Verbal

Nominal

Modal

Phrasal

Aspect

Double

Nominal

Double

Mixt-type

English

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Ukrainian

+

+

+

—

—

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

11. 
    Typology of the Secondary Parts of the Sentence
    

Allomorphic features are observed, as a rule, in the structural forms of some types of English objects, attributes and adverbial modifiers, though some Ukrainian secondary parts of the sentence are also characterised by divergent features of their own. The secondary parts of the sentence in the contrasted languages are as follows:
The object which has in English and Ukrainian both isomorphic and allomorphic features. Common, for example, is the functioning of the object as a "subjective complement" (G.G.Pocheptsov), eg: She was invited by me: вона була запрошена мною.
As to its structural forms, the object in both contrasted languages may be:
a) simple: I thought that the bank rented it. (F. King) А я думав, що банк позичив їх (гроші). Then she heard music. (S. Hill) Потім вона почула музику. ...he called "Hsst" several times. (Galsworthy) Він кілька разів повторював "ц-с-с ".
b) Simple prepositional: He was afraid of this. (Hailey) Він не думав про це. "May I speak to Lucy?" "Можна звернутися до Люсі?"
с) Extended (expressed by a subordinate word-group): "I do so dislike the summer crowds." (S. Hill) Мені так надокучають юрби людей влітку. In his book he had drawn some pretty nasty characters. (Ibid.) У своїй книжці він змалював кілька вельми неприємних персонажів.
d) Expanded objects (expressed by the co-ordinate word-groups): The other two women continued to discuss the gas and electricity bills. (F. King) ...the car brought his father and mother home. (Galsworthy) These structural types of object have their equivalents in Ukrainian: Дві інші жінки обговорювали рахунки за газ та електрику. Машина привезла його батька й матір додому. Though the first of the expanded objects in Ukrainian (рахунки за газ та електроенергію) may also be treated as the expanded prepositional object, since it is preceded by the preposition. Consequently, the nomenclature of some subtypes of the object may also be enlarged in the contrasted languages.
Apart from the aforenamed there are also other common types of the object/adjective complement in the contrasted languages.
The first to be named are the following traditionally distinguished ones: 1) the direct non-prepositional or prepositional (in English) object. For example: "He could make the money easy". (Snow). "I have heard of it..." (Ibid.) Він міг легко заробити гроші. Я це/про це чув. Не went to Oxford, studied engineering and played rugger. (D. Garnett) Він поїхав до Оксфорда, вивчав машинобудування і захоплювався регбі.
The simple object may be expressed in English and Ukrainian by different nominal parts of speech or their functional equivalents. Eg: He was describing the sufferings of the unemployed (J. London) Він описував страждання безробітних. Her laugh cut Soames to the quick. (Galsworthy) її сміх зачепив Сомса за живе. Fleur flung back her hair. (Ibid.) Флер відкинула назад свою косу.
The prepositional object in the contrasted languages, as has been pointed out, is preceded/introduced by the preposition. For example: She felt cold in nothing but her nightdress and the light wrap, and with the shiver of cold she felt fear. (Ibid.) Вона ні в що не мерзла, але в нічній одежині та легенькій фантині і від дрижаків та від холоду їй було лячно.
Not all English prepositional objects have prepositional equivalent in Ukrainian. Other prepositional objects, however, are declinable in Ukrainian (Cf. with the shiver of cold big дрижаків/дриґоління, від холоду, в одежині). No morphological expression of the syntactic dependence is observed in the so-called addressee object herself which corresponds to the indirect object собі, though it may be conveyed as an indirect prepositional object as well (cf. сказала вона сама до себе, про себе).
The indirect object in both languages has an indirect case form which is expressed in English only by the personal pronoun in the objective case and by the interrogative and relative pronoun who. Eg: I know they told me that. (Ibid.) Це вони мені сказали. The doctor gave me pills to take tranquillisers. (Ibid.) Лікар дав мені пігулки для заспокоєння. Не handed her the paper.
The direct object in the contrasted languages, two more structural forms of it are to be singled out. These are: 1) the clausal object/expressed by the object subordinate clause: "You're always telling me how good you are". (I. Shaw) Ти завжди повторюєш мені, яка ти добра. Or "I suppose she's been telling you that I'm a selfish brute." (J. Сагу) "Гадаю, вона вам сказала, що я жахливий егоїст".
The formal object is an allomorphic feature/phenomenon pertained to the English language only. This object is expressed by the formal pronoun it which has an implicit meaning, as can be seen in the following sentences: On Saturday she would clean it, wash it, and air it. (J.K. Jerome) which means in Ukrainian the following: По суботах вона прибирала, мила й провітрювала (всі кімнати, приміщення). І found it impossible to utter the next word. (Kahler) У мене не було жодної змоги сказати хоч слово. We can walk it very quickly. Ми швидко пройдемось (туди).
The complex object is not a completely allomorphic feature for Ukrainian either, though some of its structural forms are alien to it. These are, for instance, the objective with the infinitive, the objective with the present participle or the gerundial complexes/constructions, which have nouns or subordinate clauses for their equivalents in Ukrainian. For example: "Oh! If I could only see him laugh once more."
Almost all Ukrainian attributive adjuncts, however, mostly agree with the head noun in gender, case, and number. These adjuncts are: adjectives, numerals, pronouns, participles: гарний день, мій брат, перше літо, працююча зміна, засіяне поле, моя батьківщина, etc.
Each of these and other adjuncts has also case endings: гарного дня, гарному дневі, гарним днем.

12. 
    Structural Types of Sentences in English and Ukrainian
    

According to the way in which the expressed content correlates with reality, there are distinguished in the contrasted languages the following common structural types of sentences: 1) two-member sentences 2) one-member sentences.
Binary sentence structures are more characteristic of English, i.e. they are represented by a larger variety of paradigmatic subtypes than in Ukrainian. This quantitative correlation of two-member sentences in English and Ukrainian constitutes the main typological difference in the system of simple sentences of the two languages.
As a result, English two-member sentences are represented by a larger variety of extended and expanded models, than Ukrainian two-member sentences. Consequently, English two-member sentences are represented by a larger variety of paradigmatic subtypes than in Ukrainian.
The basic kernel structure of two-member sentences constitutes the binary S — P (Subject — Predicate) model which can be extended through complementation to S — P — O, S — P — O — M, S — P — О — М — M, etc. Thus, a kernel (ядерна основа) of the simple extended sentence Dave stayed in the house for another four months (Cardwell) is, of course, Dave stayed which is enlarged (extended) to Dave stayed in the house and then to the complete sentence Dave stayed in the house for another four months... (Caldwell). This process of extension can be observed in Ukrainian as well: Дейв залишився, Дейв залишився в будинку, Дейв залишався жити в будинку ще якихось чотири місяці,
Simple two-member sentences in the contrasted languages are equally exposed to the syntactic process of expansion, i. e. enlargement of their component part through the co-ordinate catenation of homogeneous elements/parts of the sentence. Cf.: Mr. Dick and I soon became the best of friends... (Dickens) Fields, trees, hedges streamed by. (Mansfield) The woman... turned round, traversed the crowded room... and clutched the lean arm of her host. (D. Parker) Similarly in Ukrainian: Містер Дік і я невдовзі стали найкращими друзями. Пробігали поля, дерева, живоплоти.
Two-member sentences in the contrasted languages may be of two subkinds: 1) conventionally complete and 2) properly complete. The former are elliptical sentences in which any part/some parts of the sentence is/are deleted: "And when are you going?" — "On Monday". (Galsworthy) Nobody under the table, nobody under the sofa. (Dickens) "What time is it now, Dick?". — "Quarter past nine". (Steinbeck) The same in Ukrainian: "І коли ви від'їжджаєте?" — "В понеділок". "Нікого під столом, нікого під канапою". "Котра година, Діку?" — "Чверть на дев'яту".
These elliptical sentences in English and Ukrainian are connected with their preceding kernel sentences, as a result of which they can easily be completed. Cf. "And when are you going " - I am going on Monday. Nobody is/was under the table, nobody was under the sofa, etc.
Note. Many English sentences, traditionally qualified as elliptical, are structurally close to Ukrainian definite personal sentences. Cf. "Much obliged to you". (Galsworthy) "Sleeping in this morning?" (Prichard). "Hear them coming yet?" (Steinbeck) Looks like rain.
These and other sentences of the kind do not in any way depend on the preceding sentences. They lack the subject (or the subject and the predicate), which is easy to define, however, from the content of the sentence. Cf. (I am) much obliged to you. (Are/were you) sleeping in this morning? (It) looks like rain, etc.
But whatever the nature of these sentences, they can be easily replenished completed which is a convincing testimony to the existence of typologically common sentence structures in the system of simple utterances of the contrasted languages. At the same time two-member sentences have a larger representation in English than in Ukrainian, which constitutes a typologically allomorphic feature of the two languages. The only two-member sentences, which are non-existent in Ukrainian, are the following:

6. 
   Impersonal sentences which are introduced by the impersonal pro noun/subject it: It is thundering. It drizzles. It snowed. It has rained/ snowed.
   
7. 
   Indefinite personal sentences in which the subject is expressed by the indefinite personal pronouns one, they, you, eg: One says. They say. You don't say so.
   
8. 
   Sentences with the above-mentioned introductory "it" or "there" like It is time to start. There is nothing/much to say.
   
9. 
   Sentences with the implicit agent and passive predicate verb fol lowed by a preposition like He was sent for. The project is objected to everywhere.
   
10. 
    Sentences with the above-mentioned secondary predication con structions as the following:
    

I thought him to be a teacher. We saw her cross the street. She made herself seem friendly. All were waiting for the results to be announced. He is said to be a sportsman. She was seen crossing the street. She is said to be preparing for the examination. He entered the room, pipe in month.
Such English two-member sentences have in Ukrainian either simple or complex definite personal sentences for their semantic equivalents. Cf. Я думав, що він учитель. Ми бачили, як він переходив вулицю. Кажуть, що він спортсмен. Усі чекали оголошення наслідків/що оголосять наслідки. Він зайшов у кімнату з люлькою в зубах.
6. Sentences with the gerundial complexes used as predicative (sec ondary predication) constructions. These sentences have in Ukrainian complex or simple sentences for their semantic equivalents. For exam ple: We learnt of his being decorated. They spoke of her passing all exams successfully. You can rely on her coming in time. Ми дізналися про його нагородження (про те, що його нагороджено). Ви можете розраховувати на її вчасний прихід (на те, що вона вчасно прийде). Говорять про її успішне складання всіх іспитів/що вона успішно склала всі іспити.
The bulk of two-member sentences are of common structural form in the contrasted languages. These are sentences with the subject expressed by a notional word or its equivalent and the predicate expressed by a finite verb, eg: Breakfast was not yet over... (Mansfield) She looks entirely different off the stage. (Parker) That was Coleman. (Maken) At dark the rain stopped. (Caldwell)
Such sentences have their structural and semantic equivalents in Ukrainian as well: Ідуть дощі. (Коцюбинський) Сава Андрійович раптом замовк. Любив дід гарну бесіду й добре слово. (Довженко)
Note. There are no equivalents in Ukrainian to the English two-member sentences with the formal "there" and "it" as formal subject. Cf. There is a book on the table. It is necessary to read more. На столі книжка. Необхідно/треба читати більше.
Common in the contrasted languages are also two-member sentences with the simple nominal predicate expressed by a noun, an adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, a participle or a phrase. Such a predicate may follow the subject or precede it. Hence, there may be a) the S — P model sentences and b) the P — S model sentences. For example, the S — P model sentences: Anything the matter, Michael? (Galsworthy) My idea obsolete!!! (B. Shaw) The Future, how, how uncharted! (Galsworthy) The P — S model sentences: Poor little thing. (Maugham) Nice manners and everything. (Parker) Bad to stick, sir. (Galsworthy) Моя пропозиція непотрібна??? Майбутнє, як, як невизначене! Бідна вона. Гарні манери і все інше. Нас троє.

13. 
    Word-order in a Simple Sentence