Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Carl W. Ernst, Shambhala Guide to 

Sufism (Boston: Shambhala, 1997); J. Spencer Trim-

ingham,  The Sufi Orders in Islam (Oxford: Clarendon 

Press, 1971).

Musa

  See m

oses

.

music

With the rise of i

slam

 in the seventh century and 

its rapid spread throughout West Asia and North 

Africa, the sounds associated with this swiftly 

growing religion traveled far and traversed many 

cultures. Following the ascent of the a

bbasid

c

aliphate

 in 750 the ensuing golden age of the 

Islamic Empire was known for its intellectual 

pursuits, intercultural exchange, and develop-

ments in 

science

, 

philosophy

, and the arts. With 

all of these interrelated cultural forces at work, 

the production of music and musical knowledge 

was extraordinary. An invaluable contribution 

of this period is by Abu l-Faraj al-Isfahani (d. 

967), a musician of Persian origin who studied 

in b

aghdad

 and produced the monumental Kitab 

al-aghani al-kabir (The great book of songs), 

which comprises 24 volumes and nearly 10,000 

pages in modern print editions. During this time, 

performers and scholars of diverse backgrounds 

greatly influenced the development of music 

in the region and often were patronized by or 

belonged to the court. State support of music 

continued with the rise of the o

ttoman

 

dynasty

in the 14th century, which again, was multieth-

nic in nature, and included important musical 

contributions from Turks, Arabs, Greeks, and 

Armenians of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish 

religious beliefs.

While music has flourished within Muslim-

governed societies, it also has been opposed 

and censored on religious grounds in different 

ways. At issue is the extent to which, if at all, 

Islam allows or embraces music. The q

Uran

 does 

not directly reference the censorship of music, 

while the 

hadith

 can be understood to support 

suppression or allowance. This debate has been 

fueled by the affective power and popular appeal 

of listening (samaa) to music in addition to the 

relationship of music to poetry and dance, which 

have their own attractions. s

UFism

 frequently 

has been at the center of this tension as it can 

involve the use of music in especially mystical 

ways. Examples of Sufi music include the song 

of praise (madh), song honoring m

Uhammad

(madih al-nabi), and remembrance ceremony 

(

dhikr

) involving Quranic recitation, music, and 

dance. Of particular interest are the call to prayer 

(

adhan

) and Quranic recitation (qiraa), which are 

practiced throughout the Islamic world. While 

they are not considered music, they can sound 

K  504  

Musa

---

very musical and follow traditional theoretical 

models of music theory. In particular, the orna-

mental style (tajwid) of Quranic recitation is 

especially melodic, elaborate, and vocally artis-

tic. The resulting combination of Quranic text 

conveyed in beautiful voice can produce ecstatic 

responses in listeners, and indeed, major 

mUez

-

zin

s often enjoy a huge fan base and even hold 

starlike status.

Music in the world of Islam is as diverse as the 

Muslim cultures that have given rise to it. Even 

in the case of a

Fghanistan

, where the t

aliban

applied Islam to destroy music, a musical revival 

is underway with the new Islamic government. At 

present, we can find examples of Islamic musical 

expression ranging from the very traditional to 

rock and rap. In the future we can expect a musi-

cal panorama increasingly reflective of the various 

areas of the world where Muslims have made their 

homes.

See also 

qawwali

; U

mm

 k

UlthoUm

.

Kenneth S. Habib