Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Fred Donner, “Review of Studies in the 

Genesis and Early Development of the Caliphal Taxation 

System,”  Journal of Near Eastern Studies 51 (January 

1992): 63–65; Ann Lambton, Landlord and Peasant 

in Persia (London: Oxford University Press, 1953); 

Hossein Modarressi Tabatabai, Kharaj in Islamic Law

(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1983); A. Ben Shemesh, Taxation in 

Islam. 3 vols. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1958, 1965, 1969).

Khawarij

 

(Kharijites)

The Khawarij were the first sectarian movement 

in Islamic history. They emerged in 657 

c

.

e

. at the 

battle of Siffin, a site on the Euphrates between 

s

yria

 and i

raq

, where the caliph a

li

 

ibn

 a

bi

 t

alib

(d. 661) was fighting to assert his authority over 

the recalcitrant governor of Syria, Muawiya. After 

Ali’s decision to arbitrate an end to the dispute, a 

group of his previous supporters withdrew from 

his ranks, taking as their watchword “Only God 

can judge” (i.e., God, not man, decides human 

affairs), and declaring their opposition to both