Encyclopedia of Islam



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Further reading: Kamran Scot Aghaie, ed., The Women 

of Karbala: Ritual Performance and Symbolic Discourses 

in Modern Shii Islam (Austin: University of Texas Press, 

2005); Juan R. I. Cole, Roots of North Indian Shiism in 



Iran and Iraq: Religion and State in Awadh, 1722–1859

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Vernon 

James Schubel, “Karbala as Sacred Space among North 

American Shia: ‘Every Day Is Ashura, Everywhere Is 

Karbala.’ ” In Making Muslim Space in North America and 

Europe, edited by Barbara Metcalf, 186–203 (Berkeley: 

University of California Press, 1996).



hypocrites

A hypocrite is someone whose actions contradict 

his or her outwardly stated beliefs or values. In 

early Islamic history, the “hypocrites” (Arabic 



munafiqun, fem. munafiqat), also called “dissem-

blers” and “dissenters,” were originally Mus-

lims in m

edina


 who opposed or disagreed with 

m

Uhammad



. In other words, they were regarded as 

a disloyal faction within the Muslim community. 

According to Ibn Ishaq’s eighth-century 

biography

of Muhammad, the Sira, they were mostly from 


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