Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Juan Eduardo Campo, The Other Sides 

of Paradise: Explorations into the Religious Meanings of 

Domestic Space in Islam (Columbia: University of South 

Carolina Press, 1991); Timothy Insoll, The Archaeology 

of Islam (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1999); Guy T. 

Petherbridge, “Vernacular Architecture: The House and 

Society.” In Architecture of the Islamic World: Its History 

and Social Meaning, edited by George Michell, 176–208 

(New York: Morrow, 1978).

hudud

  See 

crime

 

and

 

punishment

.

hujja

 

(Arabic: proof, convincing argument; 

also spelled 

hujjat)

The idea of a hujja, or proof, is expressed in 

the  q

Uran

, where God provides true arguments 

(proofs) through revelation against the false ones 

raised by humans (Q 4:165; 42:16). Also, accord-

ing to the Quran, 

prophets

 can provide proofs 

against those who disbelieve (Q 6:77). In other 

contexts, hujja has been used most widely among 

the Shia with reference to prophets, 

imam

s (sacred 

leaders descended from Muhammad), and high-

ranking religious authorities. In this sense, a hujja

is a living proof of God’s existence in human 

form. One Shii sect, the Ismailis, has used it for 

esteemed leaders who claimed access to the hid-

den  m

ahdi

 and engaged in missionary activities