Generally, biological P removal and substrate transformation (especially that of
PHAs and glycogen (Chiou & Yang, 2008). Table 2 shows that during the last SBR
mg/L, the levels of produced and degraded PHA decreased markedly (p < 0.05)
compared to those of the control, regardless of the crystal form or aging status, which
was consistent with the inhibition of P release and uptake. Notably, the higher
17
reduction in PHA degradation in the samples exposed to pristine TiO
2
-NPs resulted in
a lower energy requirement to take up P than in the samples exposed to aTiO
2
-NPs,
and may provide the most likely explanation for the failure of SOP removal (Fig. 2B).
With regard to the variations in glycogen after exposure to 50 mg/L, anaerobic
consumption was also significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited, which reduced the
accumulation of PHA. The degradation of PHA in the four TiO
2
-NP samples also
decreased markedly during the aeration period, and the synthesis of glycogen was
consistent with this trend (Table 2). This might indicate that PAOs and
glycogen-accumulating organisms (GAOs)—both of which can utilize degraded PHA
to assimilate more VFAs and synthesize glycogen (Mino et al., 1998; Xu et al.,
2016)—were simultaneously severely inhibited with regard to glycogen metabolism,
in accordance with the comparatively low level of COD removal during this phase
(Fig. 2D).
The regulation of the synthesis and catabolism of poly-P by various key enzymes
requires more in-depth research, similar to the investigations into the roles played by
PPK and PPX in catalyzing P removal during anaerobic and aerobic processes,
respectively (Chen et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2006). Table 2 shows that the effects of
each of the four TiO
2
-NPs (0.1 mg/L) on the activities of PPX and PPK in the sludge
were also limited. In contrast, after exposure to 50 mg/L, both PPX and PPK had
lower specific activities compared to the control (p < 0.05), which corresponded well
with the observed lower P release and uptake levels (Fig. 2B), regardless of the crystal
structure or aging status of the NPs. This implies that TiO
2
-NPs cause serious damage
to the bacterial membrane, and even leakage of the cytoplasm, because PPK is
associated with the plasma membrane (Ahn & Kornberg, 1990), and PPX is an
extracellular enzyme that is susceptible to toxins (Goel et al., 1998). Interestingly, the
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activity of PPX in the anaerobic environment was generally higher than in the aerobic
environment, indicating that PPX is most active in the anaerobic stage. In contrast,
PPK activity seemed to be largely unaffected by the availability of oxygen in the
environment; there was more serious inhibition of both PPX and PPK activities in the
aerobic stage than in the anaerobic stage, especially in the groups exposed to pristine
TiO
2
-NPs (Table 2). Overall, the results described above suggest that the failure of
SOP/COD removal in 50mg/L NPs exposed sludge can mainly be closely related to
the decreased activity of both PPX and PPK, and the sluggish transformation of
intermediates.
In term of crystallinity, compared to TiO
2
-R, TiO
2
-A had a greater effect on the
inhibition of enzyme activity (PPX and PPK) and the production of intermediates
(PHA and glycogen) owing to its stronger ability to produce ROS. With regard to the
aTiO
2
-NPs, aTiO
2
-R was apparently more toxic than aTiO
2
-A. This was probably
mainly due to the fact that aging increases the absorption of visible light and improves
stability in an aqueous environment owing to the smaller hydrodynamic diameter of
the NPs (Fig. 1Ba, Fig. 1Bb, Fig. 1Bc, and Table 1). Acute exposure to NPs at a
concentration of 0.1 mg/L had little impact on sludge purification, inherent substance
metabolism, or the activities of key enzymes. Therefore, further studies should only
focus on the toxic effects and mechanisms associated with exposure to NPs at a
concentration of 50 mg/L.
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