of Contemporary English.
London: Longman, 1972. 185 p.
16
called a morph. Two or more morphs united into one morpheme if they have
identical similar meaning. So, annalist by the help of morphemic analysis divides
the sentence of the words into smallest meaningful forms of grammatical parts: the
word ―worker‖ is divided into two parts:
Worker= work + er
The meaning of the first part is that which forms a new word.
The classification of morphemes. Words are made of morphemes. Morphemes
can be classified from the point of view of their function and number correlation
between form and meaning.
I.
From functional point of view morphemes are classified into:
1. Lexical
2. Grammatical
3. Lexico-grammatical
By lexical morphemes grammarians understand morphemes that have full
lexical meaning of their own which are associated with some objects, action,
quantity, quality of reality.
Example: a book; yellow; water; an apple-tree.
The lexical morpheme is the root of the word.
By grammatical morphemes we understand morphemes which do not have lexical
meaning of their own but have structural function in language.
Example: In the words ―invites‖, ―will invite‖, ―invited‖ – ―-s‖, ―will‖, ―-d‖
have structural meaning, i.e. they mean the present, the future, the past meanings.
These meanings are called grammatical
1
.
In the word forms ―wanted, spoken, walked‖ we have one grammatical
meaning: past tense, though they are different words. In the examples ―boy‘s –
girl‘s – cat‘s‖, there is also one grammatical meaning: possessive. Or in the word
forms as ―toys, trees, cars‖ we have different objects of reality but there is one
common element in them, it is the grammatical meaning of plurality.
1
Ganshina M.A. English Grammar. M.: 1964
17
The grammatical morphemes can be of two subtypes:
1.
Unbound (free)
2.
Bound
Shall, will, a, the . . . – these are unbound grammatical morphemes because
they are not added to any word or words. They are used independently in
sentences. While –(e)s, -(e)s, -‗s, -(e)d, -(e)d, -er, -est, -ing, -ing – are bound
grammatical morphemes, because they are usually added to some words and never
used independently. Grammatically bound morphemes are attached to lexical
morphemes to express new grammatical form or morphological categories.
Example: I shall go there at 9.30.
Here, ―shall‖ is unbound grammatical morpheme.
He reads newspapers every morning. In this sentence –s is grammatically
bound morpheme. First –s is gr has structural meaning of the present tense and
second –s – plurality (nouns).
Lexico-grammatical morphemes are bound morphemes that are used to
change lexical meaning of words or used to build new words. In this case they
resemble the grammatical inflexions:
Home+less=homelsss
King+dom=kingdom
In the example: «founders‖ we can see all three types of morphemes: found
+ er + s – ―found‖ is a lexical morpheme, because by its help we build new word,
and ―-s‖ is a grammatically bound morpheme, it has not lexical meaning, but has
structural function, plurality.
II.
From the point of number corralation between form and meaning
morphemes can be
1.
Empty
2.
Zero
3.
Discontinuous
Empty morphemes. These morphemes have form but no meaning.
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Example: sale-s – man.
-s is an empty morpheme. It has form but no meaning.
Zero morpheme have meaning but no form.
These morphemes can be revealed by the help of comparison of word.
Example: bed� – beds
� – it is zero morpheme, i.e. it has no form but it means singularity.
Ask� – asked here, zero morpheme means present tense.
Discontinuous morphemes consist of two or more morphemes, but express
one meaning. In other words discontinuous morphemes are those morphemes
which have at least two forms but one meaning.
Example: She is reading newspaper.
He has helped us a lot.
In these examples the discontinuous morphemes in the first sentence express
continuous action; in the second sentence it expresses a perfect action.
One of the main functions of morphology is also distinguish the wordas the
parts of speech.
The problem of parts of speech. Early in ancient times people paod attention
to the features of words which were used in their talk. They functioned differently
in speecj:
-
One group of words named objects and persons.
-
Actions made by person, animal.etc
-
Modified (article – modifier of noun)
-
Quality and property of things
-
Indicate persons and objects
These observations gave the ancient philosophers the base to define words in
to definite groups.
A Dutch linguist OTTO Esperson in his ―Philosophy of Grammar‖ writes
that it is customary to begin teaching grammar by dividing words into several
classes, generally called ―‖parts of speech‖.
19
The problem of defining words into definite parts of speech is still
disputable. The first is in the number of criteria in dealing with, defining and
classifying of parts of speech. The second is in the number of parts of speech in the
grammatical system of Modern English.
There is no unity of opinions, all the priciples of words in the parts of
speech. Early grammarians classified the words form one point of view: semantic.
Later the linguists increased the number of criteria from 2 and 3 points of view
1
.
Early Greek philosopher Aristarse Samophraskiy classified words on the
base 2 criteria:
1.
Morphological
2.
Semantical
The classification consisted of 8 parts of speech which were: noun, verb,
participle, article, preposition, pronoun, adverb and conjunctions.
The XVIII th century grammarians Lowth and Murray proposed 9 parts of
speech. Classic grammarians Esperson, Kurme and Russian scholars Sherba,
Ilyish, Smirnitskiy in their classification of words into parts of speech used 3
criteria:
1.
Semantic
2.
Morphological
3.
Syntactical
Semantic classification is based on the meaning of words which denote
things, objects, persons and animals. Words with meaning of ―thing‖ form
―nouns‖, words with the meaning of ―quality‖ of things form ―adjectives‖.
Morphological classification is base on the changing of words inflexions.
Nouns are inflected to express plurality, person and possessive form or to point
grammatical categories.
Syntactical classification is based on the functions of words in the sentence.
a)
Verbs perform the function of a predicate.
1
Blokh M. Y. Theoretical grammar of the English language. M. V. Sh. 1983
20
Example: She runs quickly
They write an assay
b)
Nouns perform the function of a subject or an object.
Example: Mike saw the teacher at the bus stop.
If a word was characterized by 3 criteria it belonged to the notional, if it was
characterized by 2 of them it belonged to the functional parts of speech.
Modern English made use of the fourth and fifth criteria. In order to classify
words into parts of speech Russian linguists Khaymovich and Rogovskaya added 2
more criteria to the previous 3.
The fourth criterion is the distribution or in other words, combinability of
one part of speech with the other one of speech:
Nouns are usually combined with the adjectives.
Example: He is a tall boy
Adverbs usually combine with verbs:
Example: he runs fast
Articles never combine with the verbs. They combine with nouns and
adjectives.
Example: The black dog is lying at the gate.
The fifth creation which is specific for each part of speech, is the word
formations morphemes or affixes. The presence of a criterion lexico-grammatical
morpheme in the root considers it belonging to definite parts of speech.
Affixes: -ous, -ful, -ish, -less – characterized adjectives.
Suffixes: -er; -or; -ment; -hood; -sion; -dom are characterized nouns.
If words have such stem building elements the rest of the criteria become
unnecessary.
The parts of speech are divided into:
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♦
21
Notional
Nouns
Verbs
Adverbs
Numerals
Pronouns
Statives (modal words)
Functional
Articles
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections
Particle
The difference between these two groups of parts of speech is as follows:
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