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§ 3. The branches of Linguistic typology



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§ 3. The branches of Linguistic typology 
Main notions of the paragraph: 
1.
 
Division of Linguistic typology
2.
 
Genealogical typology 
3.
 
Structural typology 
4.
 
Areal typology 
5.
 
Comparative typology 
 


Linguistic typology has different divisions based on the objectives of 
analysis. According to the object of study, linguistic typology may include the 
following sections: 
Genealogical typology 
In genealogical typology of languages, a classification is based on the 
genetic principle, that is, grouping related languages by origin into language 
families. Genealogical typology became possible only after the concept of 
linguistic kinship arose in 19th century and the principle of historicism was 
confirmed in linguistic research. It is formed as a result of the study of languages 
using the comparative-historical method.
The comparative historical method is used to establish the relationship of 
languages. This method is based on a comparison of languages and is aimed at 
elucidating their historical past. A comparative historical method is based on the 
laws of phonetic changes, on the laws and trends of morphological, word-
formation, syntactic and lexical levels of a language. Using this method, scientists 
compare genetically identical words and forms of related languages with each 
other and restore, their original form, their archetypes, or proto-language.
To prove the genetic relationship of languages, the existence of systemic 
tendencies in the language development is analyzed. In this case, the specific 
criterion is the presence of systematic relationships like lexical and grammatical 


similarities, and the presence of regular phonetic correspondences in the original 
material of languages. Moreover, when identifying lexical similarities, not all 
words should be used, but only those that express vital concepts (basic 
vocabulary): body parts (arm, leg), terms of kinship (mother, father), some 
actions (take, eat, give) etc. It can be easily noticed that in the structures of many 
languages of Europe there are common features, for example, Polish 
woda

Russian 
вода
, English 
water
, German 
Wasser
, etc. Such common features can 
be found not only in geographically related but also geographically and 
historically unrelated languages. For example, the table of basic words in 11 
different languages extracted from A.A.Reformatskiy illustrates the resemblance 
of such distinct related languages as English, Greek or ancient languages like 
Sanskrit and Avestian.


This kind of phonetic and semantic resemblance can be explained that all these 
structures go back to one common proto-language, the appearance of which has 
been successfully restored by scientists. 
According to the genealogical classification, all related languages can 
make up a language family. Within a family, languages can have more or less 
common features, so they are grouped into branches. Inside the branch, the 
proximity between languages can also be different, so within the branch they are 
divided into subgroups. For instant, into Indo-European language family Slavic, 
Germanic, Romanic, Celtic, Indo-Iranian and other branches are included, and 
into Germanic group German, English, Swedish, Norwegian. 
As a rule, proto-language of the language family was supposed to exist 6-
7 thousand years ago. This time interval was taken from the example of the Indo-
European language family, which is the largest in the world – about 3 billion 
people speak its languages. In recent decades, linguists have made attempts to 
implement a genealogical classification of languages for a time period earlier than 
7 thousand years ago. In this case, it is supposed to talk about macro-families that 
unite several distinguished language families. One of such macro-families is the 
Nostratic macro-family, which, in addition to the Indo-European, includes the 
Altai, Ural, Afro-Asian and other language families. According to various 
estimates, it is assumed that a single Nostratic-parent language existed 10-20 
thousand years ago
8
. In the following extract several words resembling 
phonetically and semantically in 3 language families are illustrated.
“Nostr. * bura 'snow (sand) storm': sem. * bwr 'sandstorm, wind' (Arabic 
barih 'hot wind with sand, Somali fora 'strong wind with dust'), Indo-European.
*bher 'storm, to rage' (Russian. storm, Iceland. byrr 'tailwind'); Ural. *pura 'to 
blow' and *purka 'blizzard' (Fin. purku 'blizzard, winter storm'); alt. *bura / bora 
'storm, blizzard' (Tatar. buran 'blizzard', Even. borga 'blizzard, 
8
https://spravochnick.ru/yazykoznanie_i_filologiya/sistemy_klassifikacii_yazykov/genealogicheskaya
_
klassifikaciya_yazykov/ 


snowstorm')”
9


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