Introduction
Michael M. Laskier and Yaacov Lev
The Divergence of Judaism and Islam is a thorough exploration of Judeo-
Muslim interaction from the end of the nineteenth century to the onset
of the third millennium, focusing on the declining multiethnic Ottoman
Empire, the Balkans, Arab lands, Central Asia, post–World War II Ger-
many, and Australia.
Our contributing authors treat the Judeo-Muslim relationship with a
rich sampling of interdisciplinary approaches that include education, his-
tory, political science, anthropology, sociology, economics, and modern
Hebrew and Arabic literature. The fifteen essays cut a swath across a
panoply of themes incorporating a variety of cultural, literary, and so-
cial scientific perspectives. Through original and updated research, they
provide insights generating a synergistic impact on a diverse reading
audience eager to approach the tangled and fragile relationship with an
eye open to nuance.
Our edited study joins the best reference works, such as The Jews of
the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times, edited by Reeva S. Si-
mon, Michael M. Laskier, and Sara Reguer (New York: Columbia Univer-
sity Press, 2003); Michael M. Laskier, North African Jewry in the Twentieth
Century: The Jews of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria (New York: New York
University Press, 1994, 2nd ed., 1997); Norman A. Stillman, The Jews of
Arab Lands in Modern Times (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of
America, 1991); and Zvi Zohar’s edited volume about Sephardic and Miz-
rahi Jewry: From the Golden Age of Spain to Modern Times (New York: New
York University Press, 2005).
2 · Michael M. Laskier and Yaacov Lev
These works accentuate different aspects from our own. They adopt
other methodologies or orientations. In the first place, they tend to focus
mainly on Jewish communities per se within Islamic lands and less on the
profound complexities inherent in Judeo-Muslim life. The main emphasis
is placed on Jews living parallel Muslim society. In our volume, Muslims
and Jews are treated with equal attention insofar as their positive interac-
tions and divergences. Second, we go well beyond Arab and other Mus-
lim milieus to assess the Judeo-Muslim relationship in the Balkans, the
European Union, and Australia. My own [Laskier] North African Jewry in
the Twentieth Century is essentially a political history of Maghrebi Jewry.
It does not lend itself to social, economic, cultural, anthropological, and
sociological analyses. Zohar’s book covers a host of themes related to
religious and cultural factors and cuts across the medieval and modern
periods, surveying too much in one monograph. The book written by
Stillman and the edited counterparts by Simon, Laskier, and Reguer are
either sourcebooks or textbooks. Stillman’s book is a continuation of his
previous book on Jews in Muslim lands, covering the period well into the
latter half of the twentieth century. Its strength lies in the presentation of
an in-depth analysis supplemented by significant primary sources pub-
lished as documents.
Conceptually and methodologically, our project examines this com-
plex relationship through four phenomena and developments: (1) com-
mon interests; (2) political modes of existence and social mobility in
transitional societies; (3) challenges emanating from the Arab-Israeli and
other regional upheavals due to rising nationalist tides; and (4) notions
of conflict resolution via political and interreligious dialogue.
The main thesis here differs markedly from that of our first edited
volume, The Convergence of Judaism and Islam: The Religious, Scientific, and
Cultural Dimensions. As this title suggests, the first book expounds on
cultural, religious, and intellectual convergence and effervescence in the
Middle Ages and the early modern period. In this separate volume about
the interrelationship within a changing world, important aspects of com-
monalities and interdependence that persisted are raised. Nevertheless,
problems of divergence often outweigh those of coming together, with
mounting tensions overshadowing the relationship.
Insofar as Jewish-Muslim interdependence and/or shared destinies
are concerned, these prevailed in key provinces of the late-nineteenth-
century Ottoman Empire, the Balkans throughout the ages, Uzbekistan
Introduction · 3
well into the twentieth century, and precolonial Morocco. This also
proves to be the case presently in Germany and Australia between Mus-
lim immigrants striving to adapt to their new surroundings and the more
deeply implanted Jewish communities. Jews of several Balkan states and
in post-Ottoman Turkey weathered many crises, and most of their com-
munities remained relatively intact over a long period of time—Turkey
to current days, the Balkans until the mid-1940s. The dissolution of some
Balkan communities or the significant depletion of their populations
resulted from Nazi oppression rather than Muslim-Jewish animosities.
Like their Muslim counterparts, the Jewish communities in Germany and
Australia today are asserting themselves politically and socially. This,
however, cannot be said for Jews of Arab lands in recent decades. By the
1990s, the Jewish communities of Central Asia, too, met a similar fate of
population decline and downward mobility.
Unlike modern Turkey and Iran, the Arab Middle East and Maghreb
succumbed to European colonial domination. Several lands, notably
Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt, were colonized at different periods in the
nineteenth century. Palestine, too, was very much exposed to European
colonialism as well as to gradual demographic changes in the wake of
Jewish colonization that gained momentum under the British Mandate.
Excluded from the colonial sphere of influence was Yemen, yet a case
study about Yemeni Muslim-Jewish particularisms and commonali-
ties in a noncolonial setting is part of our book. Yemen underwent vital
transformations, some of which were evident throughout the Arab world
and included Jewish communal self-liquidation attributed to domestic
considerations.
The decline of Arab and Muslim influence globally in all areas during
the twentieth century, in sharp contrast to rising European supremacy,
had dire consequences for the Judeo-Muslim relationship. At a time
when Jews and Christians lent support to foreign domination, Muslims
began to espouse political, nationalist, and Islamist ideologies that did
not bode well for these minorities. Gone were the days of intellectual and
religious convergence.
The Jews prospered under colonialism more than the Muslims, aban-
doning their old neighborhoods in favor of the modern urban agglomera-
tions built by the Europeans. Even in rural areas, such as southern Mo-
rocco, Jews adapted to modernity. They became better educated through
the colonial schools and the transnational educational network of French
4 · Michael M. Laskier and Yaacov Lev
Jewry known as the Alliance Israélite Universelle (AIU). The Muslims
felt more at ease with the traditional Jews who shared lifestyles similar
to theirs. With the exception of their elites, ordinary Muslims usually re-
garded European schools as centers for antireligious influences. As Jews
distanced themselves from the Muslims through European education and
adapted to French, Spanish, Italian, and English cultures and languages,
acquiring whenever feasible foreign nationalities, tensions and mutual
distancing sharpened. For not only did Jews opt for emulating Europe,
they began to support European colonial penetration at the expense of
the national sovereignty or autonomy cherished by the Muslim majority.
Besides the problems of colonialism and nationalism aggravating Jewish-
Muslim relations adversely, two other factors figured significantly. One
was attributed to European fascist currents during the 1930s and 1940s
embraced by nationalist forces in the Arab world with long-range re-
percussions. Jews were held responsible for causing the world’s ills and
were depicted as parasites. The Palestinian-Jewish struggle in Palestine
that fueled anxieties in Middle Eastern/Maghrebi nationalist circles and
wider public opinion was the other factor. The accumulated tensions trig-
gered pogroms between November 1945 and June 1948. The upheavals
in Libya and Morocco and their victimized Jewish communities are clear
indications of these misfortunes.
Since the 1950s, the transition from colonial subservience to decoloni-
zation in the age of rising sovereign Arab nation-states hardly improved
relations. The Palestine question, the reality of Israel, and the broader
Arab-Israeli conflict often bore little relevance. This holds true for Cen-
tral Asia in recent times as Russian domination of Uzbekistan and other
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