The first verses revealed in the Holy Quran
(surat el-alaq 1-5)
ÄȈÄȒÄǙ ÀÆǞÇÄȑ ÄȌÇÆǃħ ÆȔÈǥǀÆǃ ÈÄǠÈȉ
ÃȈÄȒÄʋ ÈȘÆȕ ļǀÄǦÈșÆȫ ÄȈÄȒÄǙ
Å»ÄǠÈȍÄ ÈȩȻÄȌÇÅǃħľȻÈÄǠÈȉ
ȔÄȒÄȊÈȑǀÆǃ ÄȔÇÄȒÄʋȻÀÆǞÇÄȑ
ÈȔÄȒÈǾÄȥȻÈȔÄȑȻǀÄȕȻļǀÄǦÈșȫȻÄȔÇÄȒÄʋ
Read: In the name of thy Lord Who createth
Createth man from a clot
Read: And thy Lord is the Most Bounteous
Who teacheth by the pen
Teacheth man that which he knew not
(Marmaduke Pickthall translation)
1 Introduction
Coming together is a beginning. Keeping together
is progress. Working together is success.
Henry Ford
1.1 Cooperative manipulation
It is commonly known that losing one human limb may severely a
ffect the ability to tackle
tasks requiring physical e
ffort. This is clearly evident in the difficulties facing humans with
impairments or physical disabilities (World Health Organization (WHO) 2007)
1
. Losing
even a finger may disturb the balance of gripping and manipulating an object (Laurig &
Vedder 1998, P. 29.76). From a mechanical point of view, the human body could be seen
as composed of several cooperative manipulator systems working in tandem to facilitate
the execution of everyday-life tasks (Figure 1.1). On the smallest scale of manipulation,
fingers represent the first cooperative system in the human’s arsenal. Roughly thirty
degrees of freedom (DOF) exhibited by the human hand o
ffer an unprecedented level
of fine manipulation and numerous techniques for flexible gripping (Lin et al. 2000).
On a larger scale the human arms represent the second system, whether attached to the
same body or not. Their ability to augment fingers with load sharing and manipulation in
larger workspaces, render the combined hand-arm system a more so sophisticated system.
Although the human legs are seldom applied together with the arms
2
, it nevertheless
constitutes an important ingredient of the larger manipulation capability manifested in the
human body. Legs provide stable locomotion which physically expand the manipulation
workspace and render it virtually infinite. Remarkably, the latter three systems rarely act
alone. Instead they work together in di
fferent arrangements in accordance with the task
given. For instance, moving an object from one location to another entails the simultaneous
and coordinated application of all three systems. Not only are human limbs capable of
working alone, but they could be cascaded with others to collaborate on larger tasks.
1
The WHO’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF)
2
This statement is only true in the sense that hand-leg dependency is not biologically equivalent to hand-arm
dependency. Otherwise it is clear that leg movement (locomotion), especially running, requires a specific
synchronized arm movement
1 Introduction
[a] Fine Manipulation
[c] Locomotion
[b] Load Sharing
Figure 1.1: Cooperating manipulators in human beings
1.2 Cooperation in industrial manipulators
In the quest to automate human tasks, engineers have sought to build manipulators which
could mimic the manipulation capabilities of humans
3
. Although far from replicating
their performance, industrial robots helped propel production forward by rendering au-
tomation of monotonous tasks cost-e
ffective, hereby immensely contributed to increasing
manufacturing productivity (Craig 2005). As processes became more complicated and
sophisticated, teams of robots cooperatively working together in unison were envisioned
(Christensen et al. 2009, P. 10). From sharing a common workspace to processing
a shared work-piece in tandem to working with humans in their vicinity; cooperating
industrial robots (CIR) were regarded as a natural extension to the development of in-
dustrial robotics and a prerequisite for future flexible manufacturing paradigms (R¨uckel
2006)(Gausemeier et al. 2011). As the next logical step in a booming industry, robot
manufacturers started marketing their respective cooperating robot systems in the mid
2000’s. Given their distributive and dexterous nature, CIR are ideal as flexible jigs and
fixtures (Figure 1.2). By allowing several robots to hold a work-piece and to move it in
tandem, the work-piece could be flexibly positioned to be processed (Stoddard et al.
2004)(Inaba & Sakakibara 2009, P. 357). Furthermore, this permits access to areas on
the work-piece which are otherwise deemed inaccessible with static fixturing (Kurth
2005). The dexterity of CIR also makes them very useful in handling very large or even
flexible work-piece which require synchronized movements to retain a given (Sun et al.
1996)(Tzeranis et al. 2005).
In addition to utilizing the robots as dynamic fixtures, they also simplify the material
flow through the work-cell by undertaking a secondary role as part handlers. Analogous
3
According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary a robot is: a machine that looks like a human being and performs
various complex acts (as walking or talking) of a human being
4
1.2 Cooperation in industrial manipulators
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