Dictionary of islamic architecture

See also:
Afghanistan, Samarra
Further reading:
T.Allen, ‘Notes on Bust’, 
Iran. Journal of the British Institute
of Persian Studies,
26:
55–68
1988; 27: 57–66, 1989; 28: 23–
30, 1990.
D.Schlumberger, M.Le Berre, J.C.Garcin and G.Casal,
Lashkari Bazar, une residence royale ghaznevide et ghoride,
Memoires de la Delegation Archéologique Française en
Afghanistan, Part 1A ‘L’Architecture’, 1978.
Lebanon
The republic of Lebanon is located on the east coast of the
Mediterranean between Palestine and Syria.
Lebanon is dominated by two geographical features,
the sea and the Lebanon and Anti Lebanon
mountains. The principal cities of the country are
located on the coast and include the old Phoenician
settlements of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut and Tripoli. The
history of Lebanon in the Islamic period is similar to
Lebanon

---

162
that of Syria with some minor variations. The main
consideration is that the Lebanon mountains cut off
Lebanon from the rest of Syria whilst the sea opened
it up to European contact. One of the first indications
The South Palace, Lashkari Bazar, Afghanistan (after Allen)
Lebanon

---

163
Libiya (Libyan Arab People’s Socialist State)
of Syria’s separateness occurred in the eighth century
when the Christian Maronites established an
independent state in the Kadisha valley amongst the
mountains of north Lebanon. In the eleventh century
dissident followers of the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim
settled in the mountains of southern Lebanon and
established the Druze community. During the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries the country was dominated
by the Crusaders who had conquered the coastal cities
for use as bases in their conquest of Palestine. With the
expulsion of the Crusaders in 1289 the Mamluks rebuilt
cities such as Tripoli to remove all trace of the Crusader
presence. In 1516 Lebanon was incorporated into the
Ottoman Empire although its position enabled it to
develop its own trading links with Europe. Contact
with Europe was increased throughout the Ottoman
period and in the eighteenth century Maronites were
placed under the special protection of France.
Massacres of Christians in the nineteenth century led
France to press for the autonomy of Lebanon within
the Ottoman Empire and from 1860 Lebanon has
functioned as a semi-independent state. The country
achieved full independence in 1944 at the end of the
Second World War.
Stone is the principal building material in Lebanon
and is used both in a dressed form and as uncut rubble.
The presence of black basalt and limestone has made
striped (ablaq) masonry a popular form of decoration
for important buildings. Wood is used as a roofing
material as well as for balconies and projecting
windows. Unfortunately the cedar forests of Lebanon
were destroyed before the medieval period and the
principal types of wood are poplar, walnut, willow
and maple. Mud brick is used as a building material
in the Beqsan
atia valley where the climate is dry
enough and there is suitable clay.
The only major creation of the Umayyad period
was the city of Anjar which like Ramla in Palestine
was intended as a new regional centre away from
the predominantly Christian cities. The Mamluk
period is represented by the city of Tripoli which
was completely rebuilt after its conquest. More-over,
the Mamluk period left a great impression on the
Christian, Druze and Muslim architecture of the
country which can be seen in buildings such as the
Bayt al-Din Palace.
The most distinctive feature of Lebanese
architecture is seen in the houses of the coast, which
display a mixture of Middle Eastern and European
influence. European elements include the use of
pitched wooden roofs covered with clay tiles,
prominent windows and balconies (distinct from the
enclosed spaces usual in Islamic domestic
architecture). Middle Eastern elements include the use
of the vaulted iwan (open arched room), arcades and
the occasional use of domes. Mountain-houses are
generally less sophisticated and are often built of
roughly square blocks held together in a mud mortar.
Roofs are usually flat and made of earth resting on
mats supported on wooden beams. Inside, the
mountain-houses may be decorated with mud plaster
mixed with white lime to produce a type of stucco.
This material is used to decorate walls and is also used
for the construction of storage bins and hearths.