Partitioning Time
229
Dividing Time
229
Event-Synchronised LFO
229
List Sequencer
230
Textfile Control
231
14.4
Effects
232
Stereo Chorus/Flanger Effect
232
Simple Reverberation
233
Exercises
235
Exercise 1
235
Exercise 2
235
Exercise 3
235
Exercise 4
235
Acknowledgements
235
References
235
Online Resources
236
III
Technique
237
15
Technique Introduction
239
15.1
Techniques of Sound Design
239
Layered Approach
239
The Middle Layer
240
References
241
16
Strategic Production
243
16.1
Working Methods
243
Listen
243
Stimulate
243
Use Scale
243
Vary Scope
243
Keep Moving
244
Balance Priorities
244
Reuse and Share Successful Techniques
244
Create a Comfortable Working Space
244
Invite Input
245
16.2
SE Approaches
245
Structured Approach Summary
245
16.3
Requirements Analysis Process
247
Consensus of Vision
248
Requirements Specification Document
249
Writing Requirements Specifications
249
Placeholders and Attachment
249
Target Medium
250
16.4
Research
250
Papers, Books, TV Documentaries
250
Schematics and Plans
251
Analytical, Partial Recording
251
Impulses and Test Excitations
252
Physical Deconstruction
252
16.5
Creating a Model
252
Model Abstraction
253
16.6
Analysis
254
Waveform Analysis
254
Spectral Analysis
254
Physical Analysis
254
Operational Analysis
254
Model Parameterisation
254
16.7
Methods
255
Piecewise
256
Pure Additive
256
Mixed Additive Composites
256
Wavetables
256
Subtractive
257
Nonlinear
257
Granular
257
Physical
258
16.8
Implementation
258
Encapsulation
259
Internal Control
259
Interface
259
16.9
Parameterisation
259
Decoupling
259
Orthogonality and Parameter Space
260
Efficiency of Parameter Space
260
Factoring/Collapsing
261
16.10 Practice and Psychology
261
Design Cycle
261
Objectification
262
Expediency
262
Flow
262
Concentration, Familiarity, Simplicity
263
Time and Vision
264
References
264
Online Resources
265
17
Technique 1—Summation
267
17.1
Additive Synthesis
267
17.2
Discrete Summation Synthesis
270
17.3
Precomputation
273
References
274
18
Technique 2—Tables
277
18.1
Wavetable Synthesis
277
18.2
Practical Wavetables
278
18.3
Vector Synthesis
279
18.4
Wavescanning Synthesis
280
References
281
19
Technique 3—Nonlinear Functions
283
19.1
Waveshaping
283
Table Transfer Functions
283
19.2
Chebyshev Polynomials
285
References
289
20
Technique 4—Modulation
291
20.1
Amplitude Modulation
291
20.2
Adding Sidebands
293
20.3
Cascade AM, with Other Spectra
294
20.4
Single Sideband Modulation
295
20.5
Frequency Modulation
296
Negative Frequencies
301
Phase Modulation
303
References
303
21
Technique 5—Grains
305
21.1
Granular Synthesis
305
A Grain Generator
305
Types of Granular Synthesis
307
Sound Hybridisation
309
A Granular Texture Source
310
21.2
Time and Pitch Alteration
312
References
313
Textbooks
313
Papers
313
22
Game Audio
315
22.1
Virtual Reality Fundamentals
315
Game Objects
315
Object Methods
315
Object Views
315
Object Behaviours
316
The Players
316
World Geometry
316
Stages
317
Platforms
317
Game Logic
317
Actors and Relevance
317
22.2
Samples or Procedural Audio?
318
Events versus Behaviours
318
Limitations of Sample-Based Audio
318
22.3
Traditional Game Audio Engine Functions
319
Switching
319
Sequence and Randomisation
319
Blending
319
Grouping and Buses
319
Real-Time Controllers
319
Localisation
320
Ambiance
320
Attenuation and Damping
320
Replication and Alignment
320
Music Dialogue and Menus
320
22.4
Procedural Audio Advantages
321
Deferred Form
321
Default Forms
321
Variety
321
Variable Cost
322
Dynamic LOAD
322
22.5
Challenges for New Game Audio Systems
323
Dynamic Graph Configuration
323
Denormal and Drift Contingencies
323
Automatic Code Translation
324
Embedding a Pd Interpreter
324
Plugins
324
Cost Metrics
325
Hybrid Architectures
325
Hard Sounds
325
References
326
Books
326
Papers
326
Online Sources
326
IV
Practicals
327
23
Practicals Introduction
329
Practical Series—Artificial Sounds
331
24
Pedestrians
333
25
Phone Tones
337
26
DTMF Tones
343
27
Alarm Generator
347
28
Police
355
Practical Series—Idiophonics
365
29
Telephone Bell
367
30
Bouncing
383
31
Rolling
387
32
Creaking
395
33
Boing
401
Practical Series—Nature
407
34
Fire
409
35
Bubbles
419
36
Running Water
429
37
Pouring
437
38
Rain
441
39
Electricity
451
40
Thunder
459
41
Wind
471
Practical Series—Machines
483
42
Switches
485
43
Clocks
491
44
Motors
499
45
Cars
507
46
Fans
517
47
Jet Engine
523
48
Helicopter
529
Practical Series—Lifeforms
545
49
Footsteps
547
50
Insects
557
51
Birds
571
52
Mammals
579
Practical Series—Mayhem
591
53
Guns
593
54
Explosions
607
55
Rocket Launcher
617
Practical Series—Science-Fiction
627
56
Transporter
629
57
R2D2
635
58
Red Alert
641
Cover Image Sources
647
Index
649
Acknowledgements
This book is dedicated to my devoted and wonderful partner Kate who has always given
me support and encouragement. And in loving memory of my father Benjamin Farnell, who
passed away during its writing.
Thank you to friends and family who gave me the encouragement to finish this, Joan and
John Hiscock, my kind and patient sister Vicky and her husband Jonathan Bond, for all their
support. Also thank you to Lembit Rohumaa, a giant of generosity and enthusiasm who built
Westbourne studio in the 1990s. Thank you to all those I’ve had the honour to work with
in the studio and learn from their talents and thoughts about sound. To helpful members
of various communities—this book would not exist without the tireless efforts of the open
source software community. Thank you to all the proofreaders, expert advisors, and others
who have contributed in innumerable ways. They include members of the pd-list and forum,
members of music-dsp list and Yahoo sound design list: thank you for your patience, opinions,
and honest criticisms. To all the Openlab guys and gals who have occasionally saved me from
insanity by sharing a beer.
Sorry to anyone I missed. Thank you all.
Andrew Bucksbarg (telecommunications), Andrew Wilkie (musician and programmer),
Andy Mellor (musician, programmer), Andy Tuke (programmer), Angela Travis (actor),
Anthony Hughes (DJ), Augusta Annersley (psychology), Bart Malpas (musician), Carl Rohu-
maa (musician), Charles B. Maynes (sound designer), Charles Henry (signals math), Chris
McCormick (game design), Christina Smith (musician), Chun Lee (Composer, programmer),
Claude Heiland-Allen (digital artist, programmer), Coll Anderson (sound designer), Conor
Patterson (digital artist), Cyrille Henry (interactive music), Daniel James (author and pro-
grammer), Darren Brown (musician), David Randall (Randy) Thom (sound designer), Derek
Holzer (Pure Data), Domonic White (electronics, musician), Farella Dove (animator, VJ),
Frank Barknecht (programmer, writer), Gavin Brockis (musician), Geoff Stokoe (physics),
Grant Buckerfield (music producer, sound designer), Hans-Christoph Steiner (Pure Data), Ian
(Bugs), Hathersall (filmmaker, programmer), Jim Cowdroy (musician), Jo Carter (teacher),
Julie Wood (musician), Karen Collins (game audio), Kate Brown (psychotherapist, music),
Kees van den Doel (procedural audio), Keith Brown (chemist), Leon Van Noorden (psychoa-
coustics), Marcus Voss (digital artist), Marius Schebella (Pure Data), Martin Peach (Pure
Data), Mathieu Bouchard (math), Mike Driver (physics), Miller Puckette (computer music),
Nick Dixon (musician, programmer), Norman Wilson (programmer), Patrice Colet (Pure
Data), Patricia Allison (theatre), Paul Weir (composer), Paul (Wiggy) Neville (producer,
musician), Paul Wyatt (musician), Peter Plessas (Pure Data), Peter Rounce (electronic engi-
neer), Peter Rudkin (chemist), Philippe-Aubert Gauthier (acoustics), Rob Atwood (physics,
programmer, artist), Rob Munroe (digital artist), Sarah Class (composer), Sarah Weatherall
(film and radio), Shane Wells (electronics), Simon Clewer (programmer, physics), S (Jag)
Jagannathan (digital artist, programmer), Steffen Juul (Pure Data), Steve Fricker (sound),
Steven W. Smith (author, DSP), Steven Hodges (electronics, computing), Timothy Selby
(electronics).
Packages used: Pure Data, Nyquist, Csound, Xfig, Inkscape, Gnu Octave, Gnuplot, L
A
TEX.
1
Introduction
This is a textbook for anyone who wishes to understand and create
sound effects starting from nothing. It’s about sound as a process
rather than sound as data, a subject sometimes called “procedural
audio.” The thesis of this book is that any sound can be gener-
ated from first principles, guided by analysis and synthesis. An idea
evolving from this is that, in some ways, sounds so constructed
are more realistic and useful than recordings because they capture
behaviour. Although considerable work is required to create syn-
thetic sounds with comparable realism to recordings the rewards are
astonishing. Sounds which are impossible to record become acces-
sible. Transformations are made available that cannot be achieved
though any existing effects process. And fantastic sounds can be
created by reasoned extrapolation. This considerably enhances the
palette of the traditional sound designer beyond mixing and apply-
ing effects to existing material to include constructing and mani-
pulating virtual sound objects. By doing so the designer obtains
something with a remarkable property, something that has deferred
form. Procedural sound is a living sound effect that can run as com-
puter code and be changed in real time according to unpredictable
events. The advantage of this for video games is enormous, though it
has equally exciting applications for animations and other modern
media.
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