Данное расширенное и дополненное учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов младших курсов ф-та вмик мгу

От абака до ЭВМ

Очень давно, когда человечество было еще совсем молодым, люди использовали различные инструменты (орудия) для увеличения своих физических возможностей.

Когда человечество стало немного старше, у него появились другие проблемы. Стало необходимым накапливать, хранить, передавать и обрабатывать информацию. Это привело к возникновению счета и письменности. Древнейшим инструментом, который помогал человеку считать, была его рука. Две руки стали основой десятичной системы счисления.
С развитием торговли человеку стали нужны инструменты, увеличивающие интеллектуальные, а не физические возможности. Такими инструментами были простейшие счеты: «суан-пан» в Китае, «сурабан» в Японии, «абак», который использовали в Древней Греции. В России появился счетный инструмент, которому дали название «русские счеты».
С развитием науки и техники возникла необходимость выполнения большого количества вычислений за короткий срок времени. Так, ХХ век, открывший человечеству космос и ядерную энергию, подарил ему машину, которая могла считать автоматически (без участия человека) и с высокой скоростью миллионы операций в секунду. Эту машину назвали ЭВМ (электронная вычислительная машина), или компьютер.

IV. Topics for discussion:

1. 
   Major early developments in computing
   
2. 
   Charles Babbage, an Englishman, could be called the father of computers.
   
3. 
   The emergence of the first electronic digital computer.
   
4. 
   The development of the stored-program concept by J.von Neumann.
   

Unit Two

Memorize the key vocabulary:

1. 
   Available adj. — доступный, имеющийся в наличии
   
2. 
   Decimal adj. — десятичный
   
3. 
   Reliable adj. — надежный
   
4. 
   Magnetic core — магнитный сердечник
   
5. 
   Internal storage — внутренняя память
   
6. 
   Storage capacity — обьем памяти
   
7. 
   Auxiliary storage — дополнительная память
   
8. 
   Access n. — доступ, обращение, выборка
   
9. 
   Printer n. — печатающее устройство
   
10. 
    Chip n. — кристалл, микросхема
    
11. 
    At one time — в единицу времени
    
12. 
    Time sharing — разделение времени
    
13. 
    Feature n. — черта, особенность, признак, деталь
    
14. 
    Simultaneously adj — одновременно, параллельно
    
15. 
    Software n. — программное обеспечение
    
16. 
    Central processing unit (CPU) — центральный процессор
    
17. 
    Peripheral adj. — периферийный
    
18. 
    Equipment n. — оборудование
    
19. 
    Advantage n. — преимущество, выгода, польза
    
20. 
    Capability n. — способность, pl. (потенциальные) возможности
    
21. 
    Failure n. — неудача, крах, недостаток
    

The First Generation of Computers (1951-1958).

Eckert and Mauchly turned out to be shrewd entrepreneurs as well as scientists. Their Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation set out to make the public aware that computers existed and could be used for other than academic or military purposes. UNIVAC I became the first commercially available computer. Certain characteristics of UNIVAC I were typical of what has become known as the first generation of computers:

1. 
   Binary notation was used instead of decimal notation. All instructions and information were stored in the computer as ls and Os, which correspond to the electronic conditions "on" and "off."
   
2. 
   The computers were entirely electronic; they had no moving parts. They used vacuum tubes, as switching devices.
   
3. 
   Programs could be stored. This made it possible for general-purpose computers to perform a variety of tasks without the cumbersome rewiring earlier computers had required.
   

The different "generations" in computer history correspond to key breakthroughs in electronics. Vacuum tubes provided the electronic power of the first computer generation. But vacuum tubes had some major drawbacks. Early computers, with thousands of vacuum tubes, filled entire rooms and required an enormous amount of electric current to run. The enormous heat that was produced had to be dissipated by expensive air-conditioning systems. In addition, vacuum tubes were unreliable; the mean time between tube failures in ENIAC was 12 hours.

The Second Generation of Computers (1959-1964).

The technology that signaled the arrival of the second generation of computers was the manufacture of a tiny, simple device called a transistor. Transistors had several advantages over 200-times larger vacuum tubes. Less costly to manufacture, they were ready to go to work more quickly, and they had far fewer failures. Transistors also provided much more power than vacuum tubes did, yet they gave off nowhere near the amount of heat and drew a very small amount of electricity. Second generation machines brought another innovation – magnetic-core memory for internal storage. A magnetic core is a tiny ring of ferromagnetic material only a few hundredths of an inch in diameter; thousands – sometimes millions – of these rings were strung on very thin wires to build a computer memory. Because cores were far smaller than vacuum tubes, internal storage capacity became greater even though the overall size of second-generation computers was much smaller. During the early 1960s, magnetic tape and disks began to be widely used for auxiliary storage. Magnetic disks made possible another revolutionary development – direct access.

Computers and Supercomputers

Transistors and relatively low-cost magnetic-core memories made it possible to build smaller, more powerful computers. At the same time, faster, more efficient input devices (like card readers) and output devices (like printers) were developed. The second generation also brought the first supercomputers. Supercomputers were designed to do calculations many times faster than any other machine available at the time, and to do more of them. One of the earliest of these supercomputers was the CDC6600. It could perform over 3 million operations per second. Because second-generation computers were cheaper, more compact, and could handle a greater variety of data processing tasks more rapidly, they appealed to an expanding business clientele.

The Third Generation of Computers (1965-1970).

The next significant electronics advance for computers was the integrated circuit, which moved them into the third generation. The integrated circuit had what had been the separate parts of an electronic circuit etched on a single small piece of silicon, or chip.

When the chip arrived, it reduced even further the size of computers while increasing their speed. A major development in the third generation came with the introduction of the IBM Series 360 computers in the mid-1960s. It could do many more operations at one time than could earlier computers.
Another development that changed the way people used computers was time-sharing, a feature of some IBM 360 models. Time-sharing made it possible for several people to use computer resources simultaneously. A time-shared computer allows many users, each working at a separate input/output terminal, to use it at the same time.
In 1965 the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced the first minicomputer, smaller and less expensive than the large computers.
Because the design of third-generation computers was so different from that of second-generation computers, most of the second-generation software was incompatible with the new machines. Much software had to be rewritten and many programmers had to be retrained. A range of new, programming languages was developed for use with the English-based more accessible machines.

The Fouth Generation

Following the first three generations, developments in the computer field took off so fast that the lines dividing subsequent generations can be hard to define. Although people may disagree about what generation we are in, everyone agrees about the next important electronic advance, large-scale integration.

Large-scale integration, or LSI, refers to the compression of large numbers of integrated circuits, or transistors, on a single silicon chip. Very large-scale integration, VLSI, placed more than a million circuits on a single sliver of silicon.
In 1969 Hoff, Jr., a young engineer with the newly formed Intel Corporation used LSI to put the computer's "brain", the central processing unit, on a single chip creating a microprocessor. Microprocessors are, in effect, general purpose computers that can be programmed to do any number of tasks, from running a watch to guiding a missile. They have entered all areas of our lives.
In 1981, IBM introduced the IBM PC, which rapidly became the leader in the microcomputer market. Because businesses bought the IBM PC in large volume, it became the industry standard. The PC DOS operating system became the microcomputer standard as well, which encouraged programmers to develop commercial software products. William Gates and Paul Allen started what was to become a billion dollar company, Microsoft, marketing BASIC and PC DOS as well as the MS DOS software that the clones ran on.

Microcomputers

Microprocessors were also the first step in the development of the microcomputer. The first microcomputer, the Altair 8800, was offered in kit form. Users had to build and program these computers themselves, as well as to build peripheral equipment such as monitors. In 1977, Stephen Wozniak and Steven Jobs introduced the Apple, and Radio Shack introduced the TRS-80. These micros had a central processing unit (CPU), a monitor, an operating system, and a programming language in one assembled package.

In 1984, IBM introduced the AT microcomputer, which used the Intel 80286 chip. This machine was much faster and had a more powerful CPU than the original PC, could address more memory, had greater disk capacity, and at approximately $6,000 put the power of a low-end minicomputer into a desktop unit. Apple introduced the Macintosh in 1984, too. Based on Motorola's 68000 32-bit chip, the Mac was more powerful than the IBM AT and was incompatible with it and its programs. The Mac's processor produced excellent graphics, a feature IBM didn't match for years. The Mac also used icons – diagrams rather than words to show machine and program functions – pulldown menus, and the electronic "mouse." The mouse, a small electronic device developed at Xerox's Palo Alto research facility, lets a user point to any spot on a monitor and press a button to choose a desired function. These capabilities made the Mac very user-friendly (easy to use without special training in computers), a reputation it still has.

Notes:

1. 
   Eckert and Mauchly turned out to be shrewd as enterpreneurs as well as scientists — Экерт и Мокли оказались не только способными предпринимателями, но и учеными.
   
2. 
   the mean time — средний срок службы
   
3. 
   … yet they gave off nowhere near the amount of heat — тем не менее они не выделяли такого количества тепла
   
4. 
   CDC (Control Data Corporation) — Американская фирма, выпускающая большие быстродействующие ЭВМ для научных рассчетов.
   
5. 
   They appealed to an expanding business clientele — они привлекали растущую клиентуру из коммерческих кругов
   
6. 
   large-scale integration (LSI) — интеграция высокого уровня
   
7. 
   the clones ran on — продолжили аналоги
   
8. 
   in kit form — в комплекте
   
9. 
   in one assembled package — в одном пакете
   
10. 
    IBM PC XT — IBM Personal Computer Extended Technology
    
11. 
    IBM PC AT — IBM Personal Computer Advanced Technology
    
12. 
    Pulldown menu — меню с вытеснением нижней строки.
    

I. Answer the following questions:

1.What typical characteristics did the first generation of computer have? 2. What major drawbacks did vacuum tubes have? 3. When was a transistor invented? 4. What innovation did the second generation of machines bring? 5. What could one of the earliest computers perform? 6. Which electronic advancement moved computers into the third generation? 7. What does time-sharing mean? 8. What encouraged programmers to develop commercial software products?

II. Give the main ideas of the text in logical order.

III. Translate in writing.

Первая ЭВМ в Европе

В 1947 году в Киеве небольшая группа ученых под руководством академика Сергея Алексеевича Лебедева начала работать над созданием первой в Европе электронно-вычислительной машины.

Невозможно представить себе трудности, с которыми столкнулись ученые в процессе работы. Все нужно было начинать с нуля: не было опыта подобных работ, негде было прочитать или узнать о них. Дело в том, что уже работавшая в то время в США вычислительная машина ЭНИАК применялась в военных целях и могла решать только одну задачу – задачу встречи летящего снаряда (ракеты) и движущегося корабля.
ЭВМ, созданная академиком С. А. Лебедевым, была способна решать не только военные, но и мирные задачи и почти не отличалась от современных ЭВМ. Это была очень сложная машина. Подумать только! В этой ЭВМ работало около 6000 электронных ламп. Ее начали выпускать в 1951 году и назвали МЭСМ – малая электронно-счетная машина.
IV. Topics for discussion:

1. 
   The main characteristics of computing technology as seen through the four generations of machines.
   
2. 
   Major developments in electronic technology and how they affected the growth of computer systems: vacuum tube, transistor, integrated circuit, LSI and VLSI.
   
3. 
   Major characteristics of each of the following computer systems: first generation computer systems, second generation computer systems, third generation computer systems.
   

Section 2

Computer Structure

Unit One

Memorize the key vocabulary:

1. 
   Retrieve v. — отыскивать
   
2. 
   Transmit v. — передавать, переносить
   
3. 
   Carry out v. — выполнять
   
4. 
   Nevertheless adv. — однако, тем не менее, несмотря на
   
5. 
   Via (лат) prep. — через
   
6. 
   Draw conclusions — делать выводы
   
7. 
   Plug-compatible unit — совместимое устройство
   
8. 
   Mainframe n. — сверхмощная ЭВМ; супер-ЭВМ
   
9. 
   Support v. — обеспечивать, поддерживать
   
10. 
    Concurrently adv. — одновременно, параллельно
    
11. 
    Versatile adj. — гибкий, многосторонний
    
12. 
    Incorporate v. — соединять(ся), обьединять(ся); включать
    
13. 
    Comprise v. — включать, охватывать; содержать, вмещать
    
14. 
    Application n. — приложение, применение
    

The definition of a computer is as follows:

A computer is a collection of resources, including digital electronic processing devices, stored programs and sets of data, which, under the control of the stored programs, automatically inputs, outputs, stores, retrieves and processes the data, and may also transmit data to and receive it from other computers. A computer is capable of drawing reasoned conclusions from the processing it carries out.

Computers vary enormously in size, processing power and cost. Nevertheless, all computers consist of one or more functional devices. Each device performs a precisely specified task, and connects to other modules via defined interfaces. Modules of the same type of computer may be exchanged, and new modules added, without modification to their internaI workings. The phrase plug-compatible describes units which may be connected in this manner.