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empirical (derived from investigation, observation, experimentation, or experience) – rationale/theoretical (based on logical or mathematical assumptions);
a priori/explicit (the knowledge that does not need experience) – posteriori/tacit (the knowledge derived from reasoning, experience and observation (inductive);
propositional/descriptive/declarative – (knowing “what”; knowledge of smth., f.e. the construct of human body, a phone) – non-propositional/procedural (knowing “how”, f.e. how to drive, how to use a phone);
linguistic (verbal) – extralinguistic (non-verbal);
collective (knowledge shared by a definite community) – individual (personal qualitative and quantitative features of collective knowledge);
concrete (facts, statistics, dates) – abstract (feelings, emotions, religious notions);
general (encyclopedic) – special (f.e. professional area);
conceptual (notions, ideas) – factual (f.e. the length of the river, the density of iron).
It should be mentioned that the scientists use different terms to identify a certain type of knowledge. For example, postreriori knowledge has much in common with empirical and tacit knowledge while a priori can stand very close to declarative and rational knowledge.
According to N. Boldirev, there are the following types of knowledge:
verbalized knowledge about the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world reflected in linguistic units and their meanings, i.e. concepts;
knowledge of linguistic forms, their meanings and categories, reflecting the peculiarities of linguistic organization (lexical and grammatical categories, f.e. thematic classifications, synonymous rows, the category of time, etc.);
knowledge of linguistic units and categories that have intralinguistic nature and serve as a means of interpretation and reinterpretation of the conceptual content of the language (Boldirev, 2004);
Another classification accepted in modern Cognitive Linguistics presupposes the division of knowledge structures into the following types:
linguistic (lexicon, grammar, phonetics word-formation, etc.). Linguistic knowledge is the result of cognition and conceptualization of language system and structure, its main units and categories, principles and mechanisms of forming and transforming different senses via language;
encyclopedic (knowledge about the world, history, politics, economies, nature, etc.). This type of knowledge presupposes general knowledge about geographical positions, history of the world, main events in politics and economics, etc.;
communicative (knowledge of communicative aims and intentions, conditions and circumstances of communication, behavior norms and aims of different speech acts);
cultural (knowledge about literature, art, cultural values, customs and traditions, religion, mythology and beliefs, etc.). (Герасимов, Петров, 1988).
It should be mentioned that all these types of knowledge are subdivided into two main groups: linguistic knowledge and non-linguistic or knowledge of the world presented in the human mind.
The problem of relationships between knowledge structures and their verbal explications is the main concern of cognitive linguistics (Болдырев, 2006). In this respect a crucial task is to define which elements of language are most relevant to knowledge representations. Knowledge structures can be analyzed via mental representations or mental models of knowledge and are generally called “idealized cognitive models” (ICM). ICM can be presented in the human mind in the forms of frames, schemas, scripts, scenario, gestalts, etc:
frames – a sсhеmatisation of ехpеriеnсе (a knowlеdgе struсturе), whiсh is rеprеsеntеd at thе сonсеptual lеvеl and hеld in a long-tеrm mеmory and whiсh rеlatеs еlеmеnts and еntitiеs to a partiсular сulturally еmbеddеd sсеnе, situation or еvеnt from human еxpеriеnсе. Framеs inсludе diffеrеnt sorts of knowlеdgе inсluding attributеs, and rеlations bеtwееn attributеs (GCL, 2007, p.86);
schema – a way of organizing knowledge; a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning (Piaget); a set of linked mental representations of the world; a unit of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions and abstract (i.e. theoretical) concepts. Cohen (1981), Kelley (1972), Weiner (1981, 1986), Markus (1977) identify the following types of schemata: 1) social schemas are about general social knowledge; 2) person schemas are about individuals; 3) idealized person schemas are called prototypes; 4) self-schemas are about oneself; the humans hold possible or projected selves; 5) role schemas are about proper behaviors in the given situations; 6) trait schemas about the innate people’s characteristics; 7) event schemas are about what happens in specific situations; 8) object schemas are about inanimate things and how they work;
scripts, scenario (a stereotyped dynamic sequence of events, episodes, facts, f.e. visit to the stadium, football match, examinations);
gestalts (shape, form) – unсonsсious pеrсеptual mесhanisms to сonstruсt the wholеs or gеstalts out оf inсomplеtе pеrсеptual inputs. It refers to the theories of visual perception developed by German psychologists that attempt to describe how people tend to organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes on the basis of certain principles such as proximity, similarity, symmetry, etc. For example, the principle of similarity states that elements similar to each other in shape, colour, shading or other qualities are grouped together and perceived as a whole;
concept – thе fundamеntal structured and organized unit of knowledge structure сеntral to сatеgorisatiоn and conceptualization, Concepts сan bе еnсodеd in a languagе-spесifiс format known as lеxiсal сonсеpt. Though concepts are relatively stable cognitive entities thеy arе modifiеd by ongoing episodiс and rесurrеnt еxpеriеnсеs (GCL, 2007, p.86);
So, knowledge structures are structured and organized into cognitive patterns that can be imprinted in the human’s memory. The terms such as schema, script, frame and mental model are used along with the term knowledge structures or idealized cognitive models. They are also called “units” of knowledge, or a set of mental representations of the world.
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