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3.1.1. Frame Semantics
The theory of Frame Semantics elaborated by Ch. Fillmore (1982) presents one of the most influential theories of Cognitive Linguistics. According to Ch. Fillmore frame is a schematization of experience, a knowledge structure which relates the elements and entities associated with a particular scene from human experience. In other words, frames represent a complex knowledge structure including a group of related words and concepts. For example, THEATRE is not simply a cultural institution; it is associated with a number of concepts such as: ACTORS, SPECTATORS, PERFORMANCE, STAGE, SUCCESS, APPLAUSE, etc.
Scholars distinguish different types of frames that reflect various knowledge structures about the world:
frame-structures for denoting notions and objects: (loan, pledge, promissory);
frame-roles (manager, teacher, judge, client, cashier, student, engineer);
frames-scenario (bankruptcy, imprisonment, meeting, birthday, conference);
frame-situations (accident, wedding, shopping).
Frames represent a complex knowledge structure that allows us to understand the meaning; they provide background information against which linguistic units can be understood and used. To illustrate it V. Evans and M. Green provide an example of the frame CAR:
Fillmore Ch. views frames as models of understanding. He argues that meaning cannot be understood independently of the frame with which it is associated. Frames are the basic mode of knowledge representation, but they are continually modified according to ongoing human experience. Thus, the above given frame can be complemented by other very important for modern cars elements such as DESIGN, MODEL, COLOUR, SIZE, PRICE, etc.
Frame is a hierarchical structure of linguistic data. It consists of two levels: the upper level and the lower level. The upper level is the name of the frame; the lower level consists of terminals (slots and subslots), conveying concrete information about the situation in question. All terminals constituting the frame, are not independent; they are closely interconnected and interrelated another. Each terminal indicates the conditions and circumstances of a certain situation; it is characterized by the range of features and attributes. Some of these features are explicit, others – are implicit. In the process of frame analysis implicit components are supposed to be decoded and interpreted. From these perspectives, it is expedient to say that frames generate new senses. Besides, frame is not a settled, stable structure; it is liable to changes together with the changes of the conceptual world picture. For example, the frame of the concept WOMAN at present has considerably changed compared to that of the previous centuries. The modern frame includes such new terminals as BUSINESS WOMAN, EMANCIPATION, FEMINISM. The analysis of this frame and its components as well as associative links makes it possible to infer new conceptual features ascribed to a modern woman: strong, resolute, equal in rights, independent, confident, efficient, free-thinking, self-sufficient, self-supporting, energetic, active, busy, skillful, professional, resolved, insistent, steady, staunch, strong-willed, unfearing, tenacious, purposeful, serious, feministic, androgynous, manlike.
Frame Semantics theory can be applied not only to lexical units, but also to grammatical categories and forms (Evans, Green, 2006). For instance, the distinction between active and passive constructions is that they provide different frames. As V. Evans and M. Green note the active construction takes the perspective of the AGENT in a sentence, the passive takes the perspective of the PATIENT. For example:
George built the house.
The house was built by George.
In the first sentence the focal participant is George, he is the agent of the action. The house is the secondary participant; it is the patient of the action. In the second sentence the situation is reserved, and the agent is the secondary participant, and the patient is the focal participant. So, the difference between active and passive constructions can be formulated in terms of conceptual asymmetry characterized by the shift of “figure-ground” organization. The notion of “figure-ground” is widely used in Cognitive Linguistics. It characterizes the process of perception and cognitive processing of the most relevant and significant information. It means that some components of the frame are put forward and become a salient part (most relevant) of the frame. Other components represent the ground relative to which the figure is understood. The difference between the active and the passive lies in the interchange of “figure-ground” positions. The “ground” position of the active becomes the “figure” of the passive and the “figure” position of the active is replaced by the “ground” of the passive.
In summing up, the following conclusions can be made:
frame is a schematisation of experience, a complex knowledge structure represented at the conceptual level and encoded in language;
meanings can only be understood with respect to frames;
the theory of Frame Semantics is relevant to the meanings of words, word combinations, grammatical categories and forms.
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