Crafts and trade in the Kokand Khanate
TashPMI, Uzbekistan
Building a democratic society
theory and practice
Candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department
Karimova Miyassar Jamoldinovna
Key words: handicrafts, specialization, trade, yarn, semi-silk fabrics, weaving,
weaving, gray, printed, woolen, semi-silk road fabric, fabric, cheap, snipe, silk,
silk-silk back, expensive, agriculture, grain growing, gardening , silk, cotton,
master.
Annotation
In the middle of the XIX century in the Kokand Khanate, due to the economic need
in the field of crafts, the process of specialization accelerated and there was a
development in the field of crafts. There was no production or textile factory in the
country. However, it is reported that textiles made by artisans on hand-made
machines were exported to other provinces and countries of the East. It is noted
that more than 30 types of products produced during this period were sold in the
main markets of the khanate, where they were in high demand.
In the middle of the 19th century, the territory of the Kokand Khanate included the
right and left banks of the Syr Darya, the lands downstream of the Okmachit
fortress, the Uratepa region, the Alai Territory, the upper reaches of the Syr Darya
with Lake Balkhash, mountainous areas such as Korategin Dorboz, Kulyab,
Shugnan. The expansion of the territories of the khanate made it possible to carry
out a number of awakenings in the socio-economic life of the peoples who lived
here. First of all, conditions were created for the expansion of agriculture, crafts
and trade. As a result of the relative acceleration of the urbanization process, urban
expansion began to be observed. By this time, the process of specialization in
handicrafts in the cities of the province accelerated due to economic necessity. The
development of crafts led to certain changes in the socio-economic life and the way
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of life of the urban population, created conditions for the strengthening of trade
relations between the khanates and neighboring countries.
N. Potanin, who was in the cities of the Kokand Khanate in the middle of the 19th
century, watched crafts and trade. olachipor yarn woven from dyed yarn), which in
turn drew attention to semi-silk weaving. The great need for such fabrics was due
to the low cost of weaving, which was explained by the fact that even the poor,
who made up the main population of the province, could afford them. N.P.
Belyavsky noted that on the eve of the Russian occupation of Central Asia, the
bulk of the population was extremely poor, where there were almost no stores with
investments of more than 2,500 rubles.
In the Kokand Khanate, fabrics such as bekasam, silk, silk-silk arkak (a kind of
atlas) were rarely woven. The main reason for this was that the demand for these
fabrics was low due to their high cost, and only wealthy people could afford to buy
such fabrics. However, over 30 products have been sold in the main markets. It
should also be noted that traders who are tired of additional taxes and fees may
have often tried to minimize their wealth as much as possible.
During this period, the bulk of the population engaged in trade in the Fergana
Valley were small traders who traded mainly in goods produced by local artisans.
People with 20-30 rubles in cities are engaged in trade
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1
Записки о Кокандском ханстве хорунжевого Потанина.- РГО. VI. Т. ХVIII -СПб.: 1856.- C. 268.
1
XIX аср ўрталарида Қўқоннинг бир тилласи русларнинг 13 рубли (қоғоз пули)га ёки 20-25 тангага тўғри
келган. Танга эса 76 чақага тенг бўлган.
2
Белявский Н.П. Материаллы по Туркестану. -М, 1889. – C.75.
3
Алимов. А. Развитие торговых отношений в Туркестане (конец XIX – начало ХХ в.в.). Дисс. ... канд. ист.
наук. -Т., 1971. – С. 167.
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were able to participate. L.F. Although they made very little money from trading,
Kostenko said they did so in desperation, hoping to make a living.
Traders had their own position in the markets depending on the type of products
they sold. For example, butchers occupied high positions in the trade, and then
handicraft merchants. At the far end of the trade staircase were small traders hired
by a lawyer.
During this period, there were 10 caravanserais in Kokand, mainly occupied by
merchants from Bukhara. They traded in products produced in their own countries
and in goods imported from neighboring countries. There are 420 stores in
Kokand. It should also be noted that during this period the volume of treatment
with local artisans and traders was limited, they have not yet reached the level of
creating national markets and influencing them. This was due to the territorial
division in the country, feudal settlement, constant disputes between the khanates,
commodity-money relations and a limited division of labor.
The bulk of the goods produced for the markets were handicrafts and agricultural
products. According to Potanin, residents of the Fergana Valley were more skilled
in agriculture, especially in grain and gardening, and in the production of textiles
from silk and cotton, than in other regions. Therefore, in addition to the Bukhara
Emirate and the Khiva Khanate, the products produced here were in great demand
among nomadic peoples and Russia.
The artisans of the Fergana Valley were more skilled at weaving cotton and silk
than artisans from other regions of the country.
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4
Хорошхин. Очерк Ташкента. Русский инвалид, 1867. №113.
5
Костенко Л.Ф. Среднеазиатская тарговля. Туркестанские ведомости, 1871. №5.
6
Алимов А.Б. Развитие торговых отношений в Туркестане. ( конец ХIХ – начало ХХ в.в)... – С.167-168.
1
Хорошхин А.П.Заметки о Коканде. Самарканд, 1868 // Туркестанский сборник. Т. ХХIII. – С. 171.
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Craftsmen made tools such as wheels and chisels to increase productivity. The
women sifted cotton to separate it from the seeds. The separated fiber spins on the
wheel and rotates. The yarn was then dyed. It is woven of yarn dyed in different
colors, like a pencil, a flag. Gray knitting threads are not dyed. Craftsmen from
Namangan and Andijan, in addition to gray, weaved fabrics such as pencils and
pencils. The fabrics produced in Kokand were of a higher quality than in Tashkent.
It should also be noted that despite the abundance of cotton and silk in Turkestan,
artisans did all the work in their homes, mostly by hand, and there was no
manufacturing or textile factory in the country. The textiles they made were in
great demand in other provinces and eastern countries.
P.I. Pashino, who came to Turkestan before the colonization of the Russian
Empire, noted that in the early 1860s in the Fergana Valley, successful traders
began to mobilize their resources for the production of textiles in the form of
disparate industries in order to better use the labor of poor artisans. “In the
production of yarn, one capitalist commissioned one of the families he knew to
produce cotton, another to spin, another to weave, a fourth to dye woven fabric,
and so on. freed him from the obligation to pay for his time. ”There are about 500
machines in Besharik alone.
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2
Бабабеков Х.Н. Народные движения в кокандском ханстве в их социально-экономические и политические
предпосылки. (ХУIII-ХIХвв). - Тошкент: Фан, 1990. – С.15.
1
Пашино.П.И. Туркестанский край в 1866 году. Путевые заметки. - СПб.: 1868. – С. 140.
2
Бобобеков Х.Н. Народные движения в кокандском ханстве в их социально-экономические и политические
предпосылки. (ХУIII-ХIХвв)…– С. 15.
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widely used, they have done great work like cleaning cotton, spinning yarn,
wrapping dukka yarn.
In the large cities of the Fergana Valley - Khojand, Andijan, Namangan and
Margilan - great attention is paid to the production of silk fabrics. Various silk
fabrics woven in Margilan, especially satin, were popular not only in Central Asia,
but throughout the East. In the middle of the 19th century, due to the growing
demand for silk fabrics, the number of silk weaving workshops in the valley grew
steadily, reaching 120 in Margilan, 97 in Khojand and 40 in Kokand. In Andijan
and Osh, this type of handicraft was much weaker. Nevertheless, satin, silk, dorai,
white silk, jujunchu, nimshoi-adras, bekasam, banors, sheets with floral prints and
the like are woven in the country. This shows that the Kokand Khanate had
relatively favorable conditions for the development of internal trade.
As a result of the development of trade and mutual trade between the settled and
nomadic population in the country, it became easier to make various household
items from wool, such as felt, carpets. Felt, palos and carpets were woven mainly
by artisans from the nomadic and semi-nomadic population. In addition, woolen
yarn, sacks, sacks, colorful shawls are woven. Embroidered shawls attract the
attention of buyers not only in the domestic market, but also in foreign markets.
Tiviti goat is used to make various felts, scarves for women and shawls for older
men.
Fergana merchants also sold fruits grown in the valley to neighboring countries
and Russia. Efforts have been made to deliver the fruit in a consistent quality. In
particular, each pear and apple was first wrapped in paper, then covered with wax
(paraffin) to make it airtight, and placed in clay metal boxes.
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3
Губаева С.С. Население Ферганской долины в конце ХIХ – начале ХХ в. -Ташкент: ФАН, 1991. – С.18.
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The top of the box is sucked in. Such boxes were delivered by trade caravans to
their destination in summer frost for 2-3 months. Russian generals used this
method to demonstrate the fruits of the Turkestan region in Moscow, and in 1868
sent 900 lemons from Tashkent.
The specialization of each district or village in a particular area has also had a
positive impact on the production of various handicrafts in the valley. In particular,
in Khojand and in the village of Oyim, which belongs to the Andijan principality,
there were many buyers for woven floral carpets. Residents of villages and auls,
such as Okmachit, Changirtosh, Dardak, Lukkazan, also engaged in carpet
weaving. At the end of the 19th century, a special carpet trade center began
operating in the city of Andijan. Most of the carpets woven in the Fergana Valley
are sold in local markets.
Central Asia has been famous for its paper and paints since ancient times. Papers
produced in Kokand (especially silk paper) were popular in the East during the
study period. One of the paper factories in Kokand was located near the city gates
of Moya Muborak, and the other was in the village of Chorsu. Master Soibnazar
Goipov, master Mukhammad Fozilov, Mukhammadsodik Mukhammadiev are
experts in this field, each of whom prepared 320 works per year. It should be noted
that after the establishment of the colonial regime in Fergana, for certain political
and economic reasons, the minting and paper production enterprises ceased their
activities. There were also bookbinding workshops in Andijan, Namangan,
Tashkent and Khojand. Cover
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1
Жамолҳожи Илҳомжон Назиржон ўғли. Фарғона водийсида нефт саноатининг шаклланиш ва ривожланиш
тарихи (1860-1917 йиллар). Тарих фан. ном. дисс. … -Т., 2004. - Б.38.
1
Машкова В.Г. Ковры народов Средней Азии (Конце XIX –нач. XX вв.) // Материалы экспедиции 1929 -
Б.194.
2
Вамбери А. Путешествие по Средней Азии. – СПб., 1865. – С. 221.
3
Федченко А.П.Обижуаз – писчебумажная фабрика в Коканде // Русский Туркестан. Сборник изданий по
поводу политической выставки. Вып. 2. Москва. 1872. - С.213;
Ўз МДА, И-1-жамғарма,16-рўйхат,1422-иш,
9,10,11,12-варақ.
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leather or thick paper In addition, there were special craftsmen in the valley who
made paints. They obtained dyes by mixing various minerals and plants. The
Fergana Valley has a large number of dyed royana plants that grow in the wild.
Yarn, wool and silk fabrics were dyed in different colors, while pomegranate and
walnut skins were used to dye fabrics black.
In the Fergana Valley, special attention is paid to pottery. The Cossacks were
famous for their elegant bronze-colored water jugs. Masters of Khojand and
Rishtan have also gained great fame in this area. Plain and glazed trays,
decorations, bowls, bowls and oil bowls carved in various colors were popular
throughout Turkestan. In particular, Ustaboy Yusupbaev produced in his pottery
workshop about 8,000 ceramics for 400 rubles a year. In the Chukurskaya Kuchuk
volost of the Namangan region, Daliboy Yakubbaev produced ceramics for 75
rubles a year, in the Sardoba volost M. Soliev for 100 rubles, Amirbaev for 100
rubles and A. Kaimuradbaev for 50 rubles. Potters made all kinds of bowls, jugs,
jars, palms, bowls, chokos, candlesticks, black lamps, tandoors and bricks for
household needs. They also prepared various artificial irrigation pipes, devices for
pumping water to heights in ditches.
Humility also played an important role in the country. Linseed oil is mainly
obtained from flax and sesame seeds. Also obtained are mixtures of melon and
watermelon seeds, poppy seeds, almonds and walnuts.
Jewelry is one of the ancient crafts in Turkestan. Jewelers mainly made various
jewelry for women from gold, silver, precious stones and bottles: amulets,
bracelets, rings, earrings for wearing on the chest. They are swords too
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4
Соатов С.Ўзбекистон ССР тарихидан ўқув қўлланмаси.Т.,1973. - С.43.
1
ЎзМДА. И - 19-жамғарма, 1 - рўйхат, 28451 - иш, 35 - 40-варақ.
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the art of carving flowers from various mines on knife handles, making pearl
buttons and rings from original stones and other precious minerals, and attaching
various minerals to earrings, especially decorative beads, is much more developed.
To decorate the saddles of horses, jewelers cut various flowers for them, washed
them and carved colorful designs on the stirrups.
In large cities of the valley, such as Khojand, Kokand, Margilan, Andijan,
Namangan, Chust, there are special copper rastas, and special attention is paid to
this region. Coppersmiths mastered the art of making and cutting various dishes:
bowls, plates, spoons, pots, jugs, obdsta, samovars, teapots, cups, candlesticks,
bowls, cigarettes, handkerchiefs, buckets, rubies, inkpots, pipes. Especially
household items - obdasta, barkash, dastashoy, candlesticks, cups, teapots, bowls
and jugs are decorated with various patterns. Some copper vessels have risen to the
level of art. There was also a division of labor among coppersmiths, and each
craftsman made only certain utensils. For example, one craftsman made cigarettes
and sand, and another made pots and pans.
The city of Margilan is known as a doppy center, where various doppies are sewn.
Chust is also famous for its knives and skullcaps. The large villages of Kokand and
its surroundings specialize in the production of footwear such as ethics and maxi-
kovush.
Along with agriculture and animal husbandry in the khanate, the development of
crafts is also influenced by the extraction of natural resources: gold, silver, copper,
iron, tin, turquoise, emerald, ruby, ruby, carnelian (precious red stones), poisonous
seal (precious ash). shown in the figure. From the Kurama mountains as a result of
the participation of many people in mining during the Kokand Khanate
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1
Соатов С. Ўзбекистон ССР тарихидан ўқув қўлланмаси... - Б.39.
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minerals are mined. Salt, mercury, coal and building materials are mined here.
When preparing the dye, mainly liquid was used, cochineal (red dye) - rosemary.
Venikov noted that the khanate uses more plants than minerals due to the lack of
knowledge in the field of chemistry, mechanics and metallurgy.
Oil has been used in the Kokand Khanate since ancient times. Locals used it as a
cure for diseases such as scabies and itching. They also knew how to lay "asphalt"
from oil residues (fuel oil). Black wax was used to sew shoes. Mountain wax
("yellow wax") was also known in the Kokand Khanate. Candles and soap are
made of yellow wax.
In 1868, a merchant from Tashkent Fedorov discovered an oil field in Moybulak
and received permission to process it for the production of kerosene and asphalt.
According to Borzna, the local kerosene produced by Fedorov, a Kokand trader
who extracted oil from Moybulak, was of the best quality and sold at 25 kopecks a
pound. The price of imported kerosene was at least 50 kopecks.
The transition of the khanate to the use of kerosene in recent years, due to its
relatively low cost and penetration into various industries, especially its use as a
light source, made it such a popular product among the local population. Kerosene
also attracted the attention of weavers. The weavers named the newly woven
bekasam fabric "chimyonnafti" because of the iridescent kerosene colors and
elegant lines. All the inhabitants of the valley named the new fabric
"chimyonnafti" or "chimyon beqasami".
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2
Терентьев М.А. Статические очерки. Средне - Азиатской России. - СПб., 1874. – С. 24.
3
Венюков М.И. Опыт военного обозрения русских границ в Азии. - СПб., 1873. -С. 345 - 346.
1
Туркестанский сборник. Т. 52. – С. 442 .
2
Ўша ерда. Т. 40. – С. 107.
3
Жамолҳожи Илҳомжон Назиржонўғли . Фарғона водийсида нефт саноатининг шаклланиши ва
ривожланиш тарихи (1860-1917 йиллар)…– Б. 43.
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Chimyonnafti coat is a favorite clothing for men and women, especially young
people.
Blacksmithing was also well developed in the valley, with cast iron and blacksmith
workshops in almost all cities and large villages. In cities, even to this day, the
names of entire Takachi neighborhoods have been preserved. Blacksmithing has
been passed down from generation to generation. Although their production
methods were simple and backward, they played an important role in the national
economy. Blacksmiths are generally divided into three groups based on the
products they make. The first group included enterprises producing door chains
and rings, heels for horses and donkeys, heels and ethical nails, various nails, iron
rings for car wheels, thick stirrups for horses, iron lathes for carpenters, and the
like. The second group of blacksmiths - masons, farmers and builders - made
various tools, including a hoe, sickle, ax, amusement and other things. A third
group of blacksmiths made knives, scissors, picks, saws, firecrackers, black
lanterns and saws.
In Kokand and Tashkent there are "factories" for the manufacture of metal tools
and weapons, in which (cannons) cannons and weapons are made. On July 11,
1872, the Russian photographer Krivtsov saw an arms factory in Andijan and
wrote that it was quite large and produced five rifles a year. Cossack rifles were
mostly smooth-bore and with partial cross-section, arrows were cast from tin, and
the tip was round. According to some reports, short and thick-walled artillery
shells, as well as artillery shells according to the European version, were fired into
Kokand.
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1
Соатов С. Ўзбекистон ССР тарихидан ўқув қўлланмаси…– Б. 37-38.
2
ЎзМДА. И-715-жамғарма, 1-рўйхат, 11-иш, 249 –варақ
3
ЎзМДА. И-715-жамғарма, 1-рўйхат, 65-иш, 449-450-варақ.
4
Ўша ерда.
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The bullets are specially made. According to Mullah Muslim, there was a cast iron
factory in Chust. In the Karamazor mountains, 30 km (1.06 km) from Samgar
There were about 20 copper deposits in the distance. According to Georg Ludwig
von Der Flea, who spent 4 days in Aitkent in 1866, the inhabitants of the Iron
Mountain mined steel from the iron ore mined there, from which weapons were
made.
Based on the data presented, it can be assumed that during this period in the
Kokand Khanate, conditions existed to a certain extent for the formation of a layer
of local craftsmen. The development of crafts and trade in the cities of the khanate
was characterized by the intensification and quality of the process of specialization
of cities in the production of goods. In particular, the quality of iron products made
in Tashkent was significantly lower than in Kokand.
In the Fergana Valley, many poor people were involved in logging. Only in the
Margilan market, about 30,000 carts of firewood are sold every year. Lumberjacks
had a certain influence on the development of crafts in cities with their labor. The
relative density of the population in the Fergana Valley had a great influence on
the development of crafts and regular contacts with the nomadic pastoralists.
Artisans sold their crafts more on Sundays. Since the market was crowded that day,
they could sell their goods at a higher price. Markets were also held weekly in
almost all large villages, which were visited by nomadic and semi-nomadic people
living in small villages and the surrounding mountainous areas. These markets are
products necessary for the daily needs of the population: grain, vegetables, fruits,
textiles, metals, livestock products.
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5
Бабабеков Х.Н. Народные движения в Кокандском ханстве в их социально-экономические и политические
предпосылки (ХVIII – ХIХ в.в)...–С. 14.
6
Ўша ерда. -Б.15.
1
Туркестанский сборник. Т.7. – С. 48.
2
Губаева С.С. Население Ферганской долины в конце ХIХ – начале ХХ в… – С.19.
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other. Traders monitor the markets regularly. As soon as they felt a shortage of
goods or fabrics, they tried to take them out of other markets.
Among the valley markets, Besharik Bazaar was distinguished by its convenient
location for trade, its density, a variety of products and a variety of buyers. The
Besharik market in some respects even surpassed the Kokand, Andijan, Margilan
and others. On Sundays, in addition to the surrounding rural population, there are
traders from Uratepa, Zaamin and Tashkent, as well as nomadic pastoralists from
the slopes and hills - Kyrgyz, Kipchaks and Kuramases; Kazakhs from Shymkent
and Turkestan; Tajiks came from Mochoy and Gissar. Wheat from the villages of
Zaamin, Chongor, Isfara, Vorukh and Kamyshkurgan was delivered to the markets.
Chongor rice was very popular here. Quality oats are grown in Kamyshkurgan.
Salt was also brought from there. Fruits and vegetables were brought from the
surrounding villages. The greatest demand was for apricots and peaches from
Isfara and Khojand, large grapes grown in the village of Nursuk, apples from
Kamyshkurgan and Namangan, Kanibadam kernels, dried mulberries from Asht. In
addition, farmers supplied sweet melons to the Besharik markets. In this market,
the village of Ropkon was famous for its white onions, the village of Beshkapa for
its yellow carrots. According to Muhammad Aziz Margilani, who lived at the time,
the markets were much cheaper during the Kokand Khanate. “In the summer,” he
wrote, “I know that on a cart with a value of two and a half to five coins, the cart
bought a melon for 3.5 coins. One basket of apricots contained three and a half
myrrh and one coin. He will give you 40 coins for a coin, which you can put in
your wallet and head to the market and spend the night. For example, a rice chaksa
is worth three coins.
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1
Губаева С.С. Население Ферганской долины в конце ХIХ – начале ХХ в…– С.20.
2
Чакса-XIX асрда Қўқонда 1/16 чорак 4,594 кг., Наманганда 13 фунт –5,324 кг га тенг бўлган ўлчов бирлиги
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In addition to the goods of local artisans, goods imported from elsewhere are
widely traded in the markets. For example, Ashtliks brought metal utensils to
Besharik: a hoe, sickle, ax and other things, and knives and doppili were brought
from Chust. The children of the rich tried to wear only Tyukov skullcaps. There
was a great demand for footwear and silk fabrics produced in Khojand and
Kanibadam. Wooden products from spoons to carts were made in the village of
Besshara. The pottery was brought from Namangan along the Syrdarya. Local
artisans also make quality rugs.
In the second half of the 19th century, the urbanization process in the Fergana
Valley accelerated and cities began to expand. As a result, sufficient conditions
were created for the development of trade. In particular, the trade turnover of
Kokand, the largest shopping center in the valley, amounted to 41.3%, Andijan -
11.2%, Namangan - 10.2%.
Alexey Fedchenko, a Russian tourist who visited Kokand in the summer of 1871,
commented on the market: “The Kokand market is more luxurious than other
markets and has been rebuilt to meet the demands of the times. The market
restructuring was triggered by the burning of about 800 stores in the market last
winter. Most of them belonged to the khan (Khudoyorkhan-MK). The burned-out
benches were replaced by new benches whose walls were made of wood and
branches and plastered with mud. Central Asian markets are covered with stems or
reeds as much as possible during the height of summer.
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3
Сангирова Д. Х. «Тарихи Азизий» - чор мустамлакачилиги даврига оид муҳим манба.
Тарих фан. ном.
дисс. -Т., 2000. - Б.98.
4
Губаева С.С. Население Ферганской долины в конце ХIХ – начале ХХ в…– С.20.
5
Губаева С.С. Население Ферганской долины в конце ХIХ – начале ХХ в…– Б.21.
1
Материалы к характеристике народного хозяйства в Туркестане. Отчет по ревизии Туркестанского края,
произведной по высочайшему повелению сенатором гофмейстером графом Паленом К.К. ч.1. Отд. II. -СПб.,
1911. –С. 299 .
2
Федченко А.П. Путешествие в Туркестан. –М.: Изд. Географической литературы. 1950 . -С.244.
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3656770
Another feature of the Kokand market that distinguished it from other markets was
that it was covered with high-rise timber and planks. From treasury to market
building large sums of money were allocated. In return, the khan built new stores
for himself instead of those that had previously belonged to others.
Contamination of domestic markets, non-compliance with sanitary procedures and
untimely cleaning have become commonplace. Crowds of people in the face of
extreme weather on market days, thick layers of dung produced by sellers and
buyers, many of whom came to the markets on horses and donkeys, covered the
streets of the market, spoiling the air and making breathing difficult.
Seeing that markets could generate more revenue than other sectors, Hudoyorkhan
worked hard to capture the markets. For example, in 1871, according to a resident
of Namangan, the khan was not satisfied with the various taxes levied on the
people to feed his large army, but destroyed houses and old shops near the market
and built a new market of 500 stores to increase the income from the markets.
Namangan. No compensation was paid to those whose houses were damaged. The
shops confiscated from the Khan owners did not take into account the fact that they
were a source of life for them. This caused serious protests from the residents of
Namangan.
Thus, in the second half of the 19th century, a number of awakenings took place in
the socio-economic life of the country. First of all, this is the increase in the
population of the khanates, the acceleration of the process of urbanization in cities.
In turn, as a result of the increase in the urban population, trade and crafts revived.
In particular, trade relations in the Kokand Khanate went beyond the limits of the
Khanate and strengthened with the neighboring countries of the East and Russia.
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3
Федченко А.П. Путешествие в Туркестан. –М.: Изд. Географической литературы… -С.244-245.
1
Туркестанские ведомости. 1871. №29. (Из показаний одного выходца в 1871г. Наманганский округ
Кокандского ханства).
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3656770
The emergence of specialization of the urban population in certain areas of crafts
further accelerated the revival of trade. Expansion of cities, population
forced a certain part of them to abandon agriculture and engage exclusively in
crafts and trade. For the relatively densely populated Fergana Valley, trade and
crafts have become one of the main livelihoods. Household goods and textiles
made by local artisans provided the domestic market as much as possible.
Links:
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Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3656770
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Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3656770
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3656770
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