Course work topic

American literature: The Transcendentalists
In their religious quest, the Transcendentalists rejected the conventions of 18th-century thought, and what began in a dissatisfaction with Unitarianism developed into a repudiation of the whole established order. They were leaders in experimental schemes for living (Thoreau at Walden Pond, Alcott at Fruitlands, Ripley at Brook Farm); women’s suffrage; better conditions for workers; temperance for all; modifications of dress and diet; the rise of free religion; educational innovation; and other humanitarian causes.

Henry David Thoreau
Henry David Thoreau, American essayist, poet, and Transcendentalist.
National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.; gift of anonymous donor
Heavily indebted to the Transcendentalists’ organic philosophy, aesthetics, and democratic aspirations were the pragmatism of William James and John Dewey, the environmental planning of Benton MacKaye and Lewis Mumford, the architecture (and writings) of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, and the American “modernism” in the arts promoted by Alfred Stieglitz
American Transcendentalism.American transcendentalism is essentially a kind of practice by which the world of facts and the categories of common sense are temporarily exchanged for the world of ideas and the categories of imagination. The point of this exchange is to make life better by lifting us above the conflicts and struggles that weigh on our souls. As these chains fall away, our souls rise to heightened experiences of freedom and union with the good. Emerson and Thoreau are the two most significant nineteenth century proponents of American transcendentalism.Looking at the world through common sense categories, such as time, space, and causation, yields hard and fast limits that can hurt us. Causation seems to make certain outcomes unavoidable whether we like them or not. Space separates us from the ones we love and the places we would rather be. Not to be outdone, time brings all good things to an end and converts the living into the dead. The categories of imagination free us from these detestable limits. We can imagine a world in which physical space is no more than an idea, enabling us to move from place to place at the speed of our thoughts. Emanation and fulguration make congenial substitutes for causation, because they generate only what is true, beautiful, and good. Not even time presents a problem for imagination, since we can readily view all things from the standpoint of eternity.Most philosophers start with theories, searching for ways in which to practice what they preach only if they are serious about their philosophies. The transcendentalists reversed this procedure. They began with practices and then attempted to establish them on solid theoretical foundations. Yet these practices all involved spurning certain facts in favor of ideas, leading them invariably to theories that are inconsistent and vague. Their honesty would not allow them to spurn all facts, so they were ever at work reshaping intractable facts to fit their theories or stretching the fabric of their views to cover uncooperative facts. Unwitting victims of their own scruples, they found themselves hating facts that did not fit the mold and being frustrated with theories they knew failed to capture all the facts.The final victim was transcendentalism itself. Critics, eager to wield the sword of criticism, overlooked the life-enhancing practices at the core of transcendentalism, concentrating their efforts on the many chinks and thin plates in its theoretical armor. Their blades penetrated easily, and they quickly pronounced their victim hopelessly baffling. Even friendly critics felt obliged to begin their articles with the proviso that transcendentalism is not easily articulated.The transcendentalists were suspended between imagination and common sense. If they had been consistent empiricists or materialists, their theories might have been securely founded on facts. Had they been fully fledged idealists or rationalists, their theories might have been firmly fixed on logical relations. In reality, they were neither consistent nor fully fledged theorists. Emerson complained of a see-saw in his voice. Yet what is most valuable in the legacy of transcendentalism is not theoretical and is not in need of theoretical backing. It is the practices by which the transcendentalists managed, at least occasionally, to re-make the world in the image of what they loved. Throughout history, human thought has shaped the processes and actions that make up the world we live in today. It has been at the root of every war as well as every treaty and negotiation. Human thought has fueled hatred and acceptance, wrath and peace, and it has endured through history despite each attempt to repress it. There have been intellectual movements throughout history in which human thought has influenced society’s culture and how it approaches its members and problems. Two such time periods were the Enlightenment and the Second Great Awakening, the latter of which being when Transcendentalism first came to the forefront of human thought. Transcendentalism was a spiritual and philosophical movement that developed in the 1820s and 1830s with roots in Kantian philosophy and German Romanticism.1 This philosophy argued for individualism and each person’s ability to make sense of the Universe through their own Spirit and Reason. In today’s world, Transcendentalist thought is often overlooked and is rarely taught or practiced. Regardless, modern society reflects the one in which Transcendentalists lived in the sense that they have both been marked by technological revolutions and the current societal issues are products of those that Transcendentalists once fought against. It is for this reason that we must look at what Transcendentalism is and how Transcendentalists responded to their society and its problems so that we may begin to do the same within our own society. To do this, it is necessary to look at Ralph Waldo Emerson’s essay, “The Transcendentalist,” which explains the origins of this way of thinking as well as what it was.2 Transcendentalist thought was influenced by rationalism, German Romanticism, and Kantian philosophy, which all contained ideas that were either upheld or challenged by Transcendentalism. To start, rationalism valued logical thinking and believed that one must base their perception of the world upon experiences and observations alone. Rationalist Rene Descartes said, “Anything which admits of the slightest doubt I will set aside just as if I had found it to be wholly false; and I will proceed in this way until I recognize something certain.”3 Transcendentalists, however, argued that knowledge should not come from reason alone, but from spiritual and emotional thinking and natural human intuition. Secondly, German Romanticists created art that displayed a natural landscape as a way of illustrating the belief that nature was God and thus nature was innately divine. These artworks often featured a human 4 who was separate from nature. German Romanticists felt that, because man values rational 5 thinking, he can never be utterly spiritual and transcendental as nature can, and is thus prohibited from forming a strong connection to the divine spirit within nature and himself.6 Transcendentalists argued that mankind must attempt to transcend reason and the physical world in search of that deeper Soul or Spirit which can guide one to an understanding of the Universe. Immanuel Kant had similar ideas in his teachings, and in the 1700s he laid the groundwork for what Transcendentalism would later become. Kant is best known for his ideas of categorical imperative and transcendental idealism. Kant’s categorical imperative states, “Act only on that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law [of nature].” Kant’s notion that one must only act or behave in the manner that 7 they would expect of the rest of the world relates to the Transcendentalist idea that one ought to act based on their own moral law. Moral law, according to transcendentalism, derives from one’s ability to discern right and wrong through their understanding of the Universe, even if their moral law differs from societal laws. The second of Kant’s teachings was transcendental idealism, which focused on “mind-dependence.” Kant’s argument was that objects we see are 8 not necessarily objects in and of themselves, but rather they are in existence because our minds allow them to be; Kant referred to these as our natural intuitions. This relates to the Transcendentalist teaching that the world comes out of us and our own thoughts rather than being a separate, distinct entity on its own. It also combats the beliefs of rationalists that say our knowledge comes only from our observation of the world. Though the beliefs of Kant and German Romanticism heavily contributed to Transcendentalism, the time period and society that Transcendentalists occupied impacted their thinking as well. During the early 19th century, nascent capitalism and the Industrial Revolution made the western world more materialistic. As urbanism expanded upon the convergence of the Communication Revolution, Market Revolution, and Transportation revolution, Transcendentalists began seeking out lives that revolved around individualism and simple living, two things they considered necessary to deciphering their own Souls and making sense of the Universe. Transcendentalists feared that spirituality would be corrupted by the greed that the materialistic world created. Transcendentalism also blossomed because of the Second Great Awakening, the time period that encompassed many religious and social reform movements, including the fights for women’s rights, abolition of slavery, and temperance. Many Transcendentalists were compelled 9 to pursue these movements due to class divides that industrialization, immigration, and westward expansion created because they believed in the equality between all humans and wished to see it reflected in society. For example, a leading Transcendentalist, Margaret Fuller, advocated for women’s rights and established herself as a proto-feminist for her activism. Others fought against slavery as they felt that each person deserved the opportunity to explore their spirituality and understanding of the world as is only possible when you are free to do as you choose. Finally, many aspects of Transcendentalism were derived from the time period’s spreading Unitarianism. It was during this period that Protestantism was being widely taught, meaning the evangelical beliefs in the divinity of Christ and the necessity of performing good deeds in order to earn salvation. Those who opposed these beliefs were inspired to begin 10 teaching their own, and hence Unitarianism took root and spread throughout the country. Unitarianism revolved around the rejection of the Holy Trinity, believing that only God was divine and should thus be given all honor. Transcendentalism came out of this, though it differed slightly in its views of human thought. While Unitarianism adopted John Locke’s theory oftwo things they considered necessary to deciphering their own Souls and making sense of the Universe. Transcendentalists feared that spirituality would be corrupted by the greed that the materialistic world created. Transcendentalism also blossomed because of the Second Great Awakening, the time period that encompassed many religious and social reform movements, including the fights for women’s rights, abolition of slavery, and temperance. Many Transcendentalists were compelled 9 to pursue these movements due to class divides that industrialization immigration, and westward expansion created because they believed in the equality between all humans and wished to see it reflected in society. For example, a leading Transcendentalist, Margaret Fuller, advocated for women’s rights and established herself as a proto-feminist for her activism. Others fought against slavery as they felt that each person deserved the opportunity to explore their spirituality and understanding of the world as is only possible when you are free to do as you choose. Finally, many aspects of Transcendentalism were derived from the time period’s spreading Unitarianism. It was during this period that Protestantism was being widely taught, meaning the evangelical beliefs in the divinity of Christ and the necessity of performing good deeds in order to earn salvation. Those who opposed these beliefs were inspired to begin 10 teaching their own, and hence Unitarianism took root and spread throughout the country. Unitarianism revolved around the rejection of the Holy Trinity, believing that only God was divine and should thus be given all honor. Transcendentalism came out of this, though it differed slightly in its views of human thought. While Unitarianism adopted John Locke’s theory of

CONCLUSION

In the decades following the emergence of Transcendentalism and Evangelicalism, American culture absorbed their respective contributions in markedly different ways. The Transcendentalists, who never claimed enough members to become a significant religious movement, bequeathed an invaluable legacy to American literature and philosophy. As a distinct movement, Transcendentalism had disintegrated by the dawn of civil war; twenty years later its shining lights had all faded: George Ripley and Jones Very died in 1880, Emerson in 1882, Orestes Brownson in 1876, Bronson Alcott in 1888. The torch passed to those writers and thinkers who wrestled with the philosophy of their Transcendentalist forebears, keeping it alive in the mind more than in the church. At his one-hundredth lecture before the Concord Lyceum in 1880, Emerson looked back at the heyday of Transcendentalism and described it thus:
It seemed a war between intellect and affection; a crack in Nature, which split every church in Christendom into Papal and Protestant; Calvinism into Old and New schools; Quakerism into Old and New; brought new divisions in politics; as the new conscience touching temperance and slavery. The key to the period appeared to be that the mind had become aware of itself. Men grew reflective and intellectual. There was a new consciousness .... The modern mind believed that the nation existed for the individual, for the guardianship and education of every man. This idea, roughly written in revolutions and national movements, in the mind of the philosopher had far more precision; the individual is the world.93
The Transcendentalists had stood at the vanguard of the "new consciousness" Emerson recalled so fondly, and it is for their intellectual and moral fervor that we remember them now as much as for their religious philosophy; the light of Transcendentalism today burns strongest on the page and in the classroom, rather than from the pulpit.
The reverberations of Evangelicalism have moved in other directions. Because the Evangelicals were, from the outset, intent on expanding church membership, they managed to define the daily religious life of the United States in a way that no other movement had done before, or has done since. Ever since the Second Great Awakening, the power of Evangelicalism has derived from its practical character -- its ability to disseminate its message, to help guide the religious lives of its adherents, to organize its members into cohesive groups. In the process of maturation and nationalization, evangelical Protestantism has lost something of its original rebellious flair, but continues as an omnipresent force. Churches of the major Evangelical denominations are common sights for the traveler. Modern Evangelical preachers follow in their predecessors' footsteps by continuing to spread the word of God -- although now they have moved beyond rural camp meetings to take advantage of the power of television.
One can understand, therefore, the gulf that separates Transcendentalism and Evangelicalism in the public consciousness. Memories of their provenance have grown hazy and imprecise, and it is easy to lose sight of their common heritage. By placing the two movements side by side, however, we gain a better understanding of how they both reacted to and helped to define a particular cultural moment in similar ways. At a time when political, economic and social transformations often exceeded the psychological ability of many Americans to keep pace, Transcendentalists and Evangelicals affirmed the dignity and moral capacity of the individual, while retaining the promise of the individual's reconnection with a higher form of community. In a time of disorienting change and exhilirating potential, they sought to attain a higher plane of consciousness, from which the diverse elements of American society could be successfully integrated into a meaningful whole. Having closed the gap between humanity and divinity, they strove -- with varying degrees of success -- to bridge divisions between individuals, between the possessed and dispossessed, men and women, blacks and whites. Transcendentalists and Evangelicals articulated religious ideas that both rebelled against and grew out of their culture, and in the process the two movements came closer together philosophically than either would have liked to admit. ConclusionNow that you have a thorough understanding of the tenets, thoughts, and attitudes of the scholars from the Transcendental Movement; it is time to apply them to everyday life. You will take your knowledge from the ideals of Transcendentalism and the works of Emerson, Thoreau, and other writer's of the time and apply to them to genres such as comic strips, television shows, modern day music, and movies. --- Are you ready to join me on an adventure to better understand nature, free-thinking, and Civil Disobedience?
"Do not go where the path may lead, go instead where there is no path and leave a trail." "What lies behind and what lies before us are tiny matters compared to what lies within us."--Emerson "If a man does not keep pace with his companions, perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer. Let him step to the music which he hears, however measured or far away." "In the long run you hit only what you aim at. Therefore, though you should fail immediately, you had better aim at something high."—Thoreau empiricism , meaning humans are born with no knowledge and must acquire it all from the 11 outside world, Transcendentalists believed that the world comes out of what we are born knowing, or our natural “intuitions of the mind itself.” Transcendentalist thought was 12 influenced by several factors, from its origins in German Romanticism and Kantian philosophy, to its time period, during which the Second Great Awakening and the Industrial Revolution were taking place. Ralph Waldo Emerson’s essay, “The Transcendentalist,” gives a comprehensive summary of the intricacies that make up Transcendentalist thought.

REFERANCES

1. 
   Gray, Richard. A History of American Literature. Malden:Blackwell Publishing, 2004.
   
2. 
   Harding, Walter. The Landmarks of American Writing. Ed. Hennig Cohen. New York:Basic
   
3. 
   Books, 1969. McIlhenny, Ryan. “American Transcendentalism: A History, and the Transcendentalists” .
   
4. 
   Journal of the Early Republic, 30. 3 (2010):488-491
   
5. 
   (12-04-2011) Robinson, David M. “Emerson, Thoreau, Fuller, and Transcendentalism”. American Literary Scholarship (2010) 2008(1): 3-28;
   
6. 
   (12-04-2011) Ruland, Richard, and Malcolm Bradbury. From Puritanism to Modernism. New York:Penguin Books, 1992.