Course work grammatical categories of degrees of comparison

Uzbekistan State World Languages University
Philology faculty
1921-GROUP'S STUDENT
Mirzaxo'jayeva Mavluda's


COURSE WORK


Grammatical categories of degrees of comparison

Checked by: Kurbanova Dilafruz

Table of Contents

1. Introduction _____________________________2-3
2. Theoretical part ___________________________3-7
Understanding Comparative and Superlative

Some Common Problems in Comparatives of Adjective

3. Practical part____________________________ 7-24
4. Conclusion ______________________________25
5. Bibliography_____________________________ 26-28
6.Appendix________________________________ 29-31

Introduction

Learning English grammar for most of students in English as a foreign language context can be quite challenging. This is to some extent because there are numerous aspects of grammar which should be mastered gradually. Among of them is to understand the appropriate use of adjective, particularly in using it to express comparisons. Here in this essay, the author would highlight a common mistake made by learners while using adjective to state comparisons and ways to deal with these problems through applicable teaching methods. In using comparison, we should be able to identify changes in suffix or spelling patters of adjective to state its degree. For example, to state an equal degree or positive form, we could use as . . .(adjective). . . as means that the things which are being compared are in equal degree. In addition, there are two major ways to express comparative meanings of adjective with one and two or more syllables. In the first place, we should add ~er for comparative and ~est for superlative forms in one syllable adjective. As outlined by Murphy (2012, p120) that –er is used for short adjective (one syllable) and more is used for longer adjective (two or more syllables). The last is about making comparisons with two or more syllables by adding more for comparative and most for superlative. These rules outlined above are categorized as regular comparison where changes of its levels largely depend on the suffixes or determiners which are being added. In contrast, irregular comparative forms are not simply by giving affixes or determiner on that adjectives, but it has own changes linguistically. A good example of this pattern would be the adjective of ‘good-better-best’. Each of these words denotes comparative meanings sequentially. To put it into brief ends, the following two tables provide summary of the degrees of comparisons. The first table would highlight regular comparisons which divided into two main sections based on its syllable, namely one syllable and two or more syllable. In addition, second table would manage the changes on irregular comparisons which also graded equally as positive, comparative and superlative forms.
Theoretical part.
Understanding Comparative and Superlative
As has been outlined in introduction, here in this section the author would briefly highlight common patterns and changes on adjective while it is used in comparisons. The following extracts, therefore, would be used as a guideline or be adapted in teaching degrees of comparison. It is generally accepted that comparisons have different types depending on whether the things which are being compared are seen based on their differences or similarities. As Cowan (2008, p582) suggested that there are two main types of comparisons. The first is positive comparisons which divided into equality comparisons and inequality comparisons. The other is comparative and superlative forms. Below are the detailed differences of them. Equality and Inequality Comparisons When an adjective compares two things in an equal degree, then the addition of ...as...as... comes in the first place. Cowan (2008, p575-6) asserted that 44 | Muflihun Indonesian TESOL Journal when we want to present two things as being equal in several aspects, we could express it by using ...as...as... which links the two things being compared. He then added that equality comparisons could also be stated trough a number of ways, for instance, by using be followed by the same + noun (thing) + as, similar to, equal/identical to, or (just) like. These patterns might be best expressed through following examples:  My motorcycle is the same color as your motorcycle  Andy’s book is identical to mine  You are just like my brother, etc. However, in order to express an opposite meaning or inequality, we could simply insert not in the first clause. Therefore, after adding not to the sentences, the comparisons would be unequal. To exemplify these changes, let us consider the following sentences:  My motorcycle is not the same color as your motorcycle  Andy’s book is not identical to mine  You are not just like my brother. Further, Cowan (2008, p574) explained that inequality comparison describes, for example, ‘x’ is greater than ‘y’ and conversely. This relation indeed underlies other ideas which Cowan (2008, p574) termed as superiority and inferiority. The former is usually expressed by the use of more or –er followed by than in comparative forms. The last is indicated by the use of less + (uncountable nouns) and fewer + (countable noun). Here are the examples:  Airplane is faster than train (superiority)  Alice has fewer friends than Nadine (inferiority) Comparative Degree and Superlative Degree Comparative degree describes unequal quality, size, measures or other respects of two nouns/things which are being compared. We could clearly see above, the formula of this comparison use one syllable adjective + er and more + two or more syllable adjectives. Murphy (2012, p210) asserted that we use –er for short adjective (one syllable) and use more for longer adjective (two or more syllables). Both of these patterns are completed by the use of than. Moreover, superlative degree takes a similar pattern. Murphy (2012, p216) added that we use –est for short adjectives and most for longer adjectives. Equally, these patterns would be followed by than and somehow by certain prepositions to clarify the scope or to what extent the comparison addressed. The prepositions might be like in, on, among, at, and others. In addition, the use of ‘the’ + short adjective (one syllable) is also crucially considered. To put it into practice, here are the examples. 
1.Going by plane is faster than by train 2.Diamond is more expensive than gold 3. Winter is the coldest season in a year  New 4.Year’s celebration is the most enjoyable party in my life.
Teaching Grammar in Secondary School of Indonesian Context |45 Vol 1, No.1, 2019 Irregular Comparisons of Adjective The other form in comparisons of adjective is irregular comparison. This type of comparison does not change regularly as shown by the other forms above and it also does not take more and most to signify comparative and superlative degree. It has its own changes and rules. Harrington (p.42) stated that a small number of highly frequent adjectives in irregular comparisons are bad – worse – worst, good – better – best, far – further/farther – furthest/farthest, etc.
Some Common Problems in Comparatives of Adjective
While the author was teaching at a secondary school, he found that most of the students were having difficulties in understanding and using comparative adjective properly. This was, of course, caused by a number of factors which could not be simply concluded. However, as he had done some observation and carried out an informal in-depth interview with some of them, it was becoming increasingly apparent that this was because of several problems as he would mention here. Firstly, they were unclear to differentiate the common pattern of adjective while it changed into degrees of comparison. It appeared when they tried to use comparative and superlative from. They could sometimes use two syllables of adjective + er to state comparative degree, instead of using adjective + -er only for one syllable. For instance, a student wrote, “My car is expensiver than their car”. Another identifiable error which made by the students was doubling forms of determiner in comparisons. What do the writer meant by this is that they often use more or most followed by adjective with ~er or ~est endings. For example, some of them wrote “Plane is more faster that bus” or “My friend Adam is most tallest student in the class”. There are two researches on the adjective comparisons which carried out by Kacani (2014) and Al-Maani (2015). Kacani (2014) (cited in Al-Maani, 2015, p6) has investigated the most common grammatical problems made by Albanian students in their learning process. She found that one of most mistakenly understood by the students was incorrect use of comparative and superlative forms of the adjectives. The problems were in the use of adverb ‘more/most’ preceding single syllabic adjective and double syllabic adjectives added with –er or –est to state comparative or superlative. For instance, the students were found to use: ‘this is more easier / more easy than…/ the most funniest’, ‘drive more faster’ instead of ‘this is easier than… / the funniest’, ‘drive faster’. Kacani emphasized that the learners were influenced by the Albanian language. Further, Al-Maani (2015) studied about “The Acquisition of the Comparative and Superlative Adjectives by Jordanian EFL Students”. The subjects of his study were 60 students from tenth graders schools (30 students) and second year college students (30 students). Then, the students were handed out 20 sentences which contained regular form of comparative and superlative using novel nonsense adjectives. The result of the study showed that university students to some extent mastered the rules more than their counterpart. In addition, both groups were better when it came to monosyllabic adjectives. However, when adjectives were polysyllabic, students’ performance becomes worse. Al-Maani (2015, p11) concluded that the lower result gained by tenth 46 | Muflihun Indonesian TESOL Journal graders because they learned English in their native language, i.e. Arabic. Therefore, they tend to apply comparison rules in Arabic to English they learned. In contrast, the university students were more exposed to English since it became language instruction in universities. It becomes increasingly apparent to understand that first language or mother tongue of these students is to some extent influence their performances in using comparisons of adjective. They tend to over generalize or apply grammatical rules of their native language to English contexts. As mentioned by Larsen-Freeman (2001, p255) who argued that even though learners look to have comprehend or mastered a certain kind of grammatical structures, it is not rarely to find backsliding happens while introducing a new grammatical form to the learners. She illustrated that a student who has eventually mastered the third person singular markers of the present-tense verbs is possibly to over generalize the rule and to use it in currently modal verbs that he/she learns.
Practical part.
A simple modification to the end of the word works for most comparison changes: -er and -est for comparative and superlative, respectively.This rule does exceptionally in most degrees of comparison changes. If we add -er to the end of ‘small,’ then it becomes smaller (comparative). If we add -est to the end of ‘black,’ it becomes blackest (superlative).So, adding -er for comparative and -est for superlative works for most adjectives. But this trick typically does not work with adverbs.
Positive degree of comparison
The positive degree simply states a quantity or quality, without making a comparison. Adjectives like happy, fast, and excited and adverbs such as wonderfully and calmly are all examples of the positive degree. These words are simply statements that tell us the quality or describe something in itself. The word or phrase does not change or get modified. The positive degree is also sometimes called the absolute degree. Examples of positive degree of comparison: Big, tall, healthy, unkind, and superficial.
Comparative degree of comparison
This is the first level of comparison. It indicates an actual comparison and involves changing the adjective slightly. The comparative degree of comparison can be used to show the difference between two states, for example-Superficial – More superficial Sweet – Sweeter Here are a few examples of changing positive degree to the comparative degree.
Positive Degree Comparative Degree
Happy-Happier, Sad-Sadder,Tall-Taller,Big-Bigger,Healthy- Healthier,Kind-Kinder,Long-Longer.
Degrees of comparison are the ways in which we compare two things or concepts with each other. They are adjectives that change depending on how strongly you feel about the things you’re comparing.In English, there are three degrees of comparison and we will go through all of them further in the article. Along with each type, there will also be examples to help you better understand the concept. Some of the exceptions within this concept in the English grammar will be touched upon later in this article. So, read on&
What are the degrees of comparison?
Degrees of comparison are related to modifying or changing adjectives or adverbs. Identifying the degree of a word allows us to state about its quantity, quality, or some other factor with respect to something else. Here is a very simple degree of comparison example-Happy – Happier
In this example, we are able to change the adjective ‘happy’ by modifying the ending of the word.
However, sometimes you do not need to change the ending, but add a word to the start. For example, the word ‘beautiful’ does not change when you need to compare it. Something cannot be ‘beautifuler,’ because that is not a word. Instead, we add the word ‘more’ or ‘most’ before ‘beautiful.’Beautiful – More Beautiful – Most Beautiful
As you can see, this form of comparison follows a progressive trend.Consequetnly, there are three degrees of comparison in English-Positive degree Comparative degree, and Superlative degree.These are in the ascending order of greatness.
The positive degree of an adjective is its simple form. It is used to denote the mere existence of some quality. Adjectives in the positive degree are used when no comparison is made. The degree of comparison of an adjective describes the relational value of one thing with something in another clause of a sentence. The comparative degree of an adjective is used to compare the quality with that of another of its kind; and the superlative degree is used to compare the quality with many or all others.
Tim runs fast.Tim runs faster than Jack.Peter runs fastest among his friends.
In sentence 1, the adjective fast says something about Tim. In sentence 2, the adjective faster compares Tim’s speed with that of Jack. In sentence 3, the adjective fastest compares Peter’s speeds with that of his friends.
Formation of comparative degree
The comparative form of an adjective can be formed using following rules:
– By adding the ‘-er’ in the end to the single syllable adjectives.
Examples:hard – harder slow – slower
– The consonant is doubled if the adjective ends with a vowel and a consonant.Examples:hot – hotter big – bigger
– If a two-syllable word ends with ‘-y’, it is replaced with ‘-ier’Examples:healthy – healthier pretty – prettier
– Word ‘more’ is placed before the multi-syllable adjective and adverbs ending in ‘-ly’.Examples:more prone more expensive more seriously more slowly
– Some adjectives and adverbs are exceptions of these rules:Examples: good – better bad – worse
Formation of Superlative degree
– By adding ‘-est’ in the end of one-syllable words.
Examples:long- longest tall – tallest
– By placing ‘the most’ before the multi-syllable words.
Examples: expensive – the most expensive famous – the most famous

– Some adjectives and adverbs are exceptions.

Examples: Good – the best Bad – the worst
We can use adjectives to compare objects, animals, people or ideas. These are called degrees of comparison. When we use an adjective to describe just one object, person, etc., we call this the positive degree. For example: Jenny is strong.
When we use an adjective to compare two objects, people, etc., we call this the comparative degree. For example: Amanda is stronger than Jenny.
When we use an adjective to compare more than two objects, people, etc., we call this the superlative degree. For example: Laetitia is the strongest of all.
Note: The comparative form is followed by “than”. The superlative form is often followed by “of”.
There are important spelling rules to remember when you use the comparative and superlative degrees:
If the adjective has a short vowel (hot, big), double the last letter and add –er (comparative) or –est (superlative). For example: hot – hotter – hottest; big – bigger – biggest.
If the adjective has double vowels or double consonants (black, sweet, young), add –er (comparative) or –est (superlative). For example: black – blacker – blackest; sweet – sweeter – sweetest; young – younger – youngest.

If the adjective ends in –e (wise, brave), add –r (comparative) or –st (superlative). For example; wise – wiser – wisest; brave – braver – bravest.

If the adjective ends in –y (lazy, wealthy), change the “y” to “i” and add –er (comparative) or –est (superlative). For example: lazy – lazier – laziest; wealthy – wealthier – wealthiest.
If the adjective ends in –ful (colourful), –ive (active) or –ous (famous) OR if the adjective has more than two syllables (diff/i/cult), add “more” (comparative) or “most” (superlative). For example: colourful – more colourful – most colourful; active – more active – most active; famous – more famous – most famous; difficult – more difficult – most difficult.
There are exceptions to these spelling rules:
good – better – the best
bad – worse – the worst
little – less – the least
many/much – more – the most
old – older/elder – the oldest/eldest
far – further/farther – the furthest/farthest
As a part of speech, adjectives are words that describe or modify a person, place, or thing (noun) in a sentence. Along with being descriptive, adjectives can also express degrees of modification or comparison, as in the following example:
The Sears Tower is a tall building, but the Empire State Building is taller, and the Burj Khalifa is the tallest building in the world.
Positive adjectives are those that are used to describe or modify nouns in general (i.e., when no comparison is at work). Accordingly, in the example above, the adjective ‘tall’ is only describing the Sears Tower and is thus a positive. The two degrees of adjective found later in the sentence are known as the comparative and the superlative. We use comparative adjectives for comparing two things, and we use superlative adjectives for comparing three or more things. Thus, in the example sentence, ‘taller’ is the comparative adjective because the Empire State Building is taller than the Sears Tower. However, ‘tallest’ is the superlative adjective because the Burj Khalifa is not only taller than the other two buildings, it is the tallest building in the world.
The words ‘more’ and ‘most’ can also turn an adjective into a comparative and superlative, respectively:
The ELISA was more sensitive than the standard colorimetric assay, but the ELISPOT was the most sensitive assay of the three.
Additional examples of degrees of adjectives are as follows (note that -er and -est are added to many adjectives to form comparatives and superlatives, but there are a few irregular sets):

Now there are some questions with answers to project topic.

How many degrees of comparison are there?
There are three main degrees of comparison - positive degree,comparative degree and the superlative degree.The positive degree isn't really a comparison, but it does tell us about the existence of a quality that someone or something has. The comparative degree is used to compare the quality of a value with another of its kind, often in another clause of a sentence. The superlative degree is the degree of comparison that we use to compare the quality of something with many or all others.
Why are degrees of comparison important?
Degrees of comparison allow us to make sense of the order of things according to what adverb or adjective is used. For example, if someone is the fastest runner, we know that they beat everyone else. But if someone is a faster runner, this might mean that they are faster than some, but not the fastest.

How do we form degrees of comparison?

Forming a degree of comparison depends on the type of word and the form that it takes. Here's a breakdown of how most degrees of comparison are formed:
Adjectives
One syllable - For one syllable adjectives, simply add 'er' for the comparative degree and 'est' for the superlative degree. For example, 'smart' 'smarter' 'smartest'.
One syllable ending in a vowel and a consonant - For these words, we need to add another consonant, then add 'er' or 'est'. For example, 'big', 'bigger', 'biggest'.
Adjectives that are more than one syllable - for these words, we don't add onto the end of the word to form degrees of comparison. Instead, we need to add a word in front of the adjective. For example 'most fabulous' 'least fabulous', 'more fabulous', 'less fabulous'.
Adjectives of more than one syllable that end in 'y' - For these words we need to remove the 'y' and add 'ier' or 'iest'. For example, 'funnier', 'funniest'.
Irregular adjectives - These words don't fit the rules. They include 'good' and 'bad' where the degrees of comparison are 'better' 'best', and 'worse', 'worst' respectively.
Adverbs
One syllable - Like adjectives, one syllable adverbs simply have 'er' and 'est' added on to the end. For example, 'slow', 'slower', 'slowest'.
More than one syllable - Where and adverb has more than one syllable, we need to add a word in front. So 'agile' would become 'more agile', 'less agile', 'most agile' or 'least agile'.
Irregular - Irregular adverbs that don't abide by the rules include 'well' which has 'better' and 'best' as its degrees of comparison.
Things to look out for
When using degrees of comparison, it's important to remember some key rules, which we'll lay out below:
Don't use double comparatives and superlatives - You may be tempted to emphasise your point by adding 'more' or 'most' to a word which already has a suffix on the end. But this would be a serious grammar error. Things like 'more longer' and 'most longest' are examples of phrases where a double comparative or superlative has been used.
If there are two things, use the comparative degree - When there are only two things to compare, you should always use the comparative degree rather than the superlative degree.
Words which can't be compared - There are some words which degrees of comparison can't be used for. Common examples include 'dead' and 'single'. Using degrees of comparison doesn't make sense for these words.
Comparison of Adjectives (Basic)
What are Degrees of Comparison?
When adjectives change in form to show comparison, they are called the degrees of comparison.
Th degrees of comparison are classified into positive, comparative and superlative degrees of comparison.
DEFINITION
Positive Degree of Comparison
The positive degree of an adjective is the adjective in its simple form. It is used to denote the mere existence of some quality.
He is as tall as his father.
In the above-mentioned sentence, the adjective is 'tall', the form 'tall' is said to be in the positive degree of comparison.
DEFINITION
Comparative Degree of Comparison
The comparative degree of an adjective is used when two things or two sets of things are compared.
Sam is taller than his father.
In the above-mentioned sentence, the form 'taller' is said to be in the comparative degree of comparison as we are comparing Sam's height to his father's height.
DEFINITION
Superlative Degree of Comparison
The superlative degree of an adjective denotes the highest degree of the quality. It is used when more than two things or sets of things are compared.

Sam is the tallest in the class.

In the above-mentioned sentence, the adjective, 'tallest' is said to be in the superlative degree as Sam's height is being compared to everyone's height in the class.
EXAMPLE
Formation of the Comparative Degree by adding -er
We can form the comparative degree by adding -er to the adjective in the positive form.
Let's look at a few examples to understand how it's done:
Positive - sweet; Comparative - sweeter
Positive - kind; Comparative - kinder
Positive - great; Comparative - greater
EXAMPLE
Formation of Superlative Degree by adding -est
The superlative degree of an adjective may be formed by adding -est to the end of the positive form of the adjective.
Let's take a look at the given examples to understand how it's done:
Positive - sweet; Comparative - sweeter; Superlative - sweetest
Positive - kind; Comparative - kinder; Superlative - kindest
Positive - great; Comparative - greater; Superlative - greatest
EXAMPLE
Formation of Comparatives/Superlatives when the Positive Ends in -e
When the positive form ends in -e, only -r and -st are added to form comparatives and superlatives respectively.
Let's take a look at these examples to understand how it's done:
Positive - fine; Comparative - finer; Superlative - finest
Positive - humble; Comparative - humbler; Superlative - humblest
DEFINITION
Form Comparatives/Superlatives when the Positive ends in -y
When the positive form ends in -y, preceded by a consonant, the 'y' is changed into 'i' before the endings -er and -est are added.
Let's take a look at the examples to understand how it's done:
Positive - happy; Comparative - happier; Superlative - happiest
Positive - wealthy; Comparative - wealthier; Superlative - wealthiest
Note: In the word, 'happy', 'y' is the last letter of the word. It is preceded by a consonant i.e. 'p'. Consonants are letters that are not vowel letters. Vowel letters are a, e, i, o, u. All the other letters in the English alphabet are consonant letters.
DEFINITION
Formation of Comparaitve/Superlative When the Positive Ends in a Consonant
When the positive ends in a single consonant preceded by a short vowel, the consonant is doubled before adding er and est.
Let's take a look at the examples to understand how it's done:
Positive - red; Comparative - redder; Superlative - reddest
Positive - thin; Comparative - thinner; Superlative - thinnest
Note: To form the comparative and superlative of the word 'red', the consonant 'd' is doubled and then we add -er and -est after the second 'd' to form comparatives and superlatives respectively. The short vowel refers to the 'e' before the consonant 'd'.
DEFINITION
Formation of Comparative/Superlative when the Adjective has More Than Two Syllables
When the adjective has more than two syllables, the comparative and superlative degrees are formed by putting 'more' and 'most' before the positive form respectively.
Let's understand how it's done with the help of these examples:
Positive - beautiful; Comparative - more beautiful; Superlative - most beautiful
Positive - difficult; Comparative - more difficult; Superlative - most difficult
Note: A syllable is a single unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound.
The number of vowel sounds in a word = The number of syllables in the word
DEFINITION
Comparatives - Within Same Person or Thing
When we compare qualities in the same person or thing, we do not use the -er form of comparative degree but use the form of 'more'.
In order to understand this rule better, let's take a look at these examples:
Jane is wiser than Tom. (We are comparing two persons - Jane and Tom)
In the above sentence, the comparison takes place between two people; therefore, the -er form of the adjective is used.
Jane is more wise than humble. (We are comparing two qualities within the same person)
In the above sentence, the comparison takes place within the same person; therefore, the 'more' form of the adjective is used.
EXAMPLE
Irregular Forms of Comparison
Some adjectives are compared irregularly, that is, their comparatives and superlatives are not formed from their positive adjectives.
To understand this rule, let's take a look at the given examples:
Positive - good; Comparative - better; Superlative - best
Positive - bad; Comparative - worse; Superlative - worst
Positive - much; Comparative - more; Superlative - most
Positive - far; Comparative - farther; Superlative - farthest
Positive - late; Comparative - later, latter; Superlative - latest, last
The above-given adjectives form their comparative and superlative forms irregularly and do not follow the regular rules of forming comparatives and superlatives.
DEFINITION
Interchanging Degrees of Comparison
It is possible to change the degree of comparison without changing the meaning of a sentence. There are three degrees of comparison:
Positive (big)
Comparative (bigger)
Superlative (biggest)
Let's take a look at these examples to understand how we can interchange the degrees of comparison without changing its meaning:
Positive - No other city in India is so big as Calcutta.
Comparative - Calcutta is bigger than any other city in India.
Superlative - Calcutta is the biggest city in India
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
Conclusion
Based on the result/finding and interpretation, it can be concluded that: there are 5 reasons that students we find difficulties in mastering degrees of comparison: They are confused to put suffix –er for comparative and –st/-est for superlative or prefix more for comparative and most for superlative, they forgot to add the article the in the superlative form and confused to omit or misplaced the use of be, they forgot to add than after adjective for comparative form, they do not know how to change the word that is ended in –y to–i and add –er/-est, and many students (42.105 %) confused to differentiate the usage of comparative or superlative degree. Those reasons are because there is inflection or addition ways of adjective in English adjective; it differs with adjective in Bahasa Indonesia which is no inflection of adjective. Moreover, based on the data analysis shows there are 16.66 % students who had the mastery in the items of comparative form, 33.77 % students who had the mastery in the items of the superlative form and 42.105 % students who had the mastery in the items of the usage of both comparative and superlative degree. It means that students’ mastery of degrees of comparison is fewer than 50 %. Therefore, it can be concluded that the second grade students we had low mastery of degrees of comparison.
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Appendixes