PREFACE TO CHAPTER 5
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example of metal lacking any biological function (Emamverdian et al., 2015). Metal toxicity depends
not only on its total concentration, but also on bioavailability which is governed by species that metal
forms. The most available forms of metals are (in decreasing order): cationic form, inorganic
complexes (
e.g. SO
4
2-
, Cl
-
, CO
3
2-
) and organic complexes. Likewise, metal mobility in the environment
is also driven by its speciation. Dissolved forms of metals exhibit high mobility; those associated with
organic matter are classified as moderately mobile, but might become highly mobile in the result of
decomposition or oxidation of organic matter (John & Leventhal, 1995). The least available metals are
those associated with crystalline mineral phases, however might turn into mobile form after release
from weathered mineral (John & Leventhal, 1995). Furthermore, surrounding conditions are important
variables affecting behavior and toxicity of metal. For example, pH declination favors occurrence of
metal in cationic form, hence increases its toxicity (Wang et al., 2016).
The occurrence of metals at toxic levels might lead to undesirable effect to organisms. For example,
when microorganisms exposed to high metal concentrations, their activity might decrease disturbing
environmental balance. Detrimental effects on plants might result in changes of metabolic processes
such as: respiration, photosynthesis, CO
2
fixation and gas exchange (Hossain et al., 2012). However,
organisms are capable to survive even at critical concentrations levels due to adaptation mechanisms
that enable them to overcome the problem of metal excess and toxicity. Beginning from the very
micro scale of intake, defensive mechanisms utilized by microorganisms include: biomethylation,
complexation, activation of efflux pump, binding on cell surface or metal removal via precipitation
(Chapter 2). When the metal content in the plant tissue reaches critical level, different counteracting
mechanisms are activated. The latter evolve: intracellular vacuolar sequestration, excretion of
intracellular detoxification enzymes such as metallothionein or phytochelatins, symbiotic association
with fungi (Emamverdian et al., 2015). The tolerance to metals rises along food chain. For example,
Cu tolerance of mammals is even up to 100 fold greater as compared to fish or 1000-fold higher as
compared to algae (Flemming & Trevors, 1989). Furthermore, accumulation of metals at any level of
food chain carries the risk of acquisition by higher organisms that can consequently result in human
(
e.g. dietary) intake and undesirable chronic effects.
Metals play an important role in geochemical and biological cycles, however their critical
concentrations might lead to undesirable consequences. For this reason, estimating different industrial
and anthropogenic metal inputs into the environment are needed for predicting their detrimental
impacts.
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