Û
408
THE PRESENT SIMPLE
219
The present simple is formed using the present tense form of a lexical verb (the
same as the base form) for all persons except third person singular. Third person
singular is formed by adding -s or -es to the base form.
The present simple: formation
1st and 2nd person singular/plural,
3rd person singular
3rd person inflection
3rd person plural
I/you/we/they/the children
He/she/it/one/the
in most verbs -s is added to
talk a lot.
child talks a lot.
base form
I/you/we/they/the children
He/she/it/the child
verbs ending in consonant + y:
worry about it.
worries about it.
y changes to i, and -es is added to
base form
I/you/we/they/the children
He/she/it/the child
verbs ending in s, z, ch, sh or x: -es is
miss her.
misses her.
added to base form
For a small number of verbs ending in a single -s, variations are possible in which
the -s is doubled:
To focus: He/she/it focuses (or focusses) on the problem of unemployment.
To bus: The primary school buses (or busses) children in from miles around.
(brings them in a bus)
To bias: The question biases (or biasses) people against voting ‘yes’.
There are also some other special cases of spelling and/or pronunciation:
be
do
say
I am
I/you/we/they do
I/you/we/they say
you/we/they are
he/she/it does (/dz/)
He/she/it says (/sez/)
he/she/it is
have
go
I/you/we/they have
I/you/we/they go
he/she/it has
he/she/it goes
The declarative and interrogative forms of the present simple are shown in the
table overleaf.
Û
539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms
Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect | 407
The present simple: declarative and interrogative forms
declarative
interrogative
affirmative
negative
affirmative
negative
I/you/we/they work.
I/you/we/they don’t
Do I/you/we/they
Don’t I/you/we/they
work.
work?
work?
(informal)
(informal)
I/you/we/they do not
Do I/you/we/they not
work.
work?
(more formal)
(more formal)
He/she/it/one works.
He/she/it/one doesn’t
Does he/she/it/one
Doesn’t he/she/it/one
work.
work?
work?
(informal)
(informal)
He/she/it one does
Does he/she/it/one not
not work.
work?
(more formal)
(more formal)
THE PAST SIMPLE
220
Regular verbs form the past simple by adding -ed to the base form:
The flight
lasted
ten hours and we
landed
at 6.30 in the morning.
We
talked
for hours on the phone.
Negative and interrogative forms are constructed with auxiliary did.
The past simple: affirmative, negative and interrogative forms
affirmative
negative
interrogative
I missed it.
I did not/didn’t miss it.
Did I miss it?
Didn’t I miss it?
(informal)
Did I not miss it?
(more formal)
He looked well.
He did not/didn’t look well.
Did he look well?
Didn’t he look well?
(informal)
Did he not look well?
(more formal)
For irregular verbs, the past simple form is the second of the three parts of a
verb, which are usually listed as base form – past form – -ed participle.
Irregular verbs
base form
past form
-ed participle
see
saw
seen
take
took
taken
put
put
put
408 | Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect
Cambridge Grammar of English
I saw her earlier.
She took it home yesterday.
Û
529 Appendix: Irregular verbs for a list of irregular verbs
Negative and interrogative past simple forms of irregular verbs are formed in the
same way as with regular verbs, using auxiliary did + the base form:
I didn’t eat my lunch.
(I didn’t ate my lunch.)
What did he sing for you?
(What did he sang for you?)
Û
508e Rule 5: Spelling of verb forms and -ed forms
TYPES OF TIME REFERENCE
221
The types of time that the verb forms may refer to are quite complex. For example,
the present tense forms may refer to a variety of different types of time. A wide
range of references is made possible by combining the present tense with
progressive aspect (be + -ing) and/or perfect aspect (have + -ed participle). The
same applies to past time references. Examples are given in the table below.
Examples of tenses for a variety of time references
example
type of time reference
This soup tastes nice.
the actual moment of speaking (‘present time’)
Come on! I’m waiting for you.
the actual moment of speaking (‘present time’)
I work in a big office.
time around the moment of speaking (‘present time’)
He is getting old.
time around the moment of speaking (‘present time’)
Water freezes at zero degrees Celsius.
general time, always true (in this book included in
‘present time’)
We leave for Italy next week.
the future, based on a present arrangement or fact
(in this book dealt with under ‘future time’)
He is leaving London tomorrow.
the future, based on a present fact or already made
decision (in this book dealt with under ‘future time’)
I said ‘You all right, Bill?’ He says, ‘Give
the past, reporting what was said (in this book, dealt
me a cigarette.’
with under ‘past time’)
She has aged a lot. She doesn’t look well.
time beginning in the past and continuing till now
(in this book dealt with under ‘past time’)
I’ve been working hard.
time beginning in the past and continuing till now
(in this book dealt with under ‘past time’)
They’d sold the house some years before.
time beginning in the past and continuing till a point
in the past (in this book dealt with under ‘past time’)
I’d been swimming so my hair was wet.
time beginning in the past and continuing till a point
in the past (in this book dealt with under ‘past time’)
Û
539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms
Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect | 409
●
Present time may be seen as the moment of speaking or writing, or the idea of
‘time around now’, or the more general, permanent time relating to truths and
general facts.
●
References to present time are made through the simple and progressive forms
of the present tense. However, some references to present time may be made
using past tense forms (
Û
343
).
●
Past time refers to an earlier time separated from the present. References to
past time are usually made with the past tenses (past simple, past progressive,
past perfect). However, some past time references may be made using present
tense forms (
Û
360
).
●
Future time refers to time after the present, either separated from the present,
or seen as starting from the present and continuing forward. References to
future time may be made with modal verbs (e.g. will, shall, may) or with the
present tense forms (
Û
362 and 369
).
●
References to time beginning in the past and continuing until now are usually
made with the present perfect forms, which are dealt with under past time
(
Û
351–354
).
●
References to time beginning in an earlier past and continuing until a
determined point in the past are usually made with the past perfect forms,
which are dealt with under past time (
Û
355–357
).
ESTABLISHING THE TIME FRAME
222
Explicit time frame
The time frame for the choice of verb tense can be established by the presence of
an adjunct or an adverbial clause.
Examples of adjunct or adverbial clause to establish time frame
example
time frame
They’re travelling through Italy at the moment.
present time
She’s arriving in Bogota next week.
future time
Her daughter finishes school tomorrow evening.
future time
She started last Monday.
past time
Plymouth has changed in the last few years.
time leading up to the moment of speaking
His mother had died years previously.
time before a point in the past
I’ve known Jill since I came here in about 1975.
time leading up to the moment of speaking
I really didn’t even concentrate on it when I was
past time
doing it.
Implicit time frame
The time frame may be implicit or already established, and simply understood in
the context.
410 | Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect
Cambridge Grammar of English
Examples of implicit time frame
example
form
implicit time frame
Why
is he smiling like that?
present progressive
present time (moment of speaking)
I think you’ve probably got the
simple past
past time (you dialled at some point
wrong number. What number
separated from the moment of
did you dial?
speaking)
Ben’s moving to Manchester so
present progressive
future time (he will move at some
he’s selling his house.
point soon)
A: Have you rung dad?
present perfect
time leading up to the moment of
B: No, not yet.
speaking, during which you may
have rung
I told her I
’d invited you.
past perfect
time before a point in the past
(before I told her)
ASPECT AND MEANING
223
Aspect refers to the speaker’s/writer’s perspective on the time of an event.
In English, aspect is concerned mainly with how the speaker perceives the
duration of events, and how different events relate to one another in time.
An event may be referred to in different ways, even though the point in time
when it occurs may be unchanged. For example, the same event in the past can be
referred to by either the past simple or the present perfect, depending on the
speaker’s perception of the importance or relevance of an event:
A: They’ve sold their house there, you know.
B: Oh have they. Where have they gone?
A: Oh she’s a bit fed up really. They sold the house because he wants a job up
north.
The speaker uses perfect aspect (have sold) to announce the news of the house
sale (a typical use of the present perfect to mark ‘newsworthiness’) but then uses
the past simple (sold) when expanding on the details, even though both verbs
refer to the same event.
The choice of aspect may also reflect an emphasis on whether an event was
long-lasting or just a point in time. It may also reflect whether it is to be seen as
temporary or permanent, whether it is/was already in progress when something
else happened, whether it is generally or always the case, whether it happens
regularly, etc.
English has two aspects: progressive (sometimes called continuous) aspect and
perfect aspect.
Û
539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms
Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect | 411
PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
224
With progressive aspect, the focus is principally on the duration of the event. It
may therefore be used to indicate that something is ongoing, unfinished, or that it
is extended but temporary. It may indicate that something is/was/will be already
in progress when something else happens/happened. In other words, the focus is
not on the starting or finishing point of an event, but on the event as seen from its
centre. Examples are given in the table below.
Progressive aspect involves the use of auxiliary be and the -ing form of a lexical
verb.
Examples of progressive aspect
example
form
type of duration
1 [on the telephone]
present progressive
an ongoing process at the
It’s about half past two and
moment of speaking
I’m approaching Lyon.
2 [ MP = Member of Parliament] present perfect progressive
continuing from a year ago till
He has been doing some
now and possibly into the
research for an MP for about
future
a year.
3 My knees were shaking.
past progressive
an ongoing process at the
point in the past the speaker is
referring to
4 This had been going on since
past perfect progressive
continuing from September till
September.
the moment in the past the
speaker is talking about
5 I’ll be working when you
will/shall + progressive
will be an ongoing process at
get home.
(often called future
the point in the future the
progressive)
speaker is referring to
6 We’ll have been living here
will/shall + perfect
will continue from twelve
twelve years soon.
progressive (often called
years before till the point in
future perfect progressive)
the future referred to (‘soon’)
7 It must have been going on
modal perfect progressive
an ongoing process probably
for years.
occurring over a period of
time leading up to now or up
to a point in the past
Some of the sentences in the table above are best understood in contrast with
possible meanings of their simple form equivalents.
2 He has done some research for an MP for about a year. This sees the action
more as a completed event, and could – but not necessarily – mean the action is
finished.
3 My knees shook. This could mean my knees shook for a defined period of time
(e.g. a few seconds) then stopped.
5 I’ll work when you get home. This could mean ‘I’ll start work when you get
home’.
412 | Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect
Cambridge Grammar of English
The infinitive form of the progressive (following verbs such as hope, intend,
like, seem, want, and other structures requiring an infinitive) is formed with
to be + - ing form of the verb:
He just seemed to be doing the same thing we were doing.
I don’t want to be walking round on my own at nights.
It’s a peculiar essay to be doing at university, I would have thought.
The present progressive
224a
The present progressive is formed with the present tense forms of be + -ing form of
a lexical verb. Examples are given in the table below.
The present progressive: declarative and interrogative forms
declarative
interrogative
affirmative
negative
affirmative
negative
I’m doing it right.
I’m not doing it right.
Am I doing it right?
Aren’t I doing it right?
(informal)
(informal)
(informal)
I am doing it right.
I am not doing it right.
Am I not doing it right?
(more formal)
(more formal)
(more formal)
You/we/they’re
You/we/they’re not
Are you/we/they
Aren’t you/we/they
working on Friday.
working on Friday.
working on Friday?
working on Friday?
(informal)
You/we/they aren’t
(informal)
working on Friday.
You/we/they are
(informal)
Are you/we/they not
working on Friday.
working on Friday?
(more formal)
You/we/they are not
(more formal)
working on Friday.
(more formal)
He/she/one it’s
He/she/it/one’s not
Is he/she/it/one
Isn’t he/she/it/one
working today.
working today.
working today?
working today?
(informal)
He/she/it/one isn’t
(informal)
working today.
He/she/it/one is
(informal)
Is he/she/it/one not
working today.
working today?
(more formal)
He/she/it/one is not
(more formal)
working today.
(more formal)
Û
508f Rule 6: Spelling of verb forms: -ing forms
The past progressive
224b
The past progressive is formed with was/were + -ing form of a lexical verb:
The wind was blowing from the north.
Were you expecting someone?
Û
539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms
Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect | 413
The table below shows the declarative and interrogative forms of the past progressive.
The past progressive: declarative and interrogative forms
declarative
interrogative
affirmative
negative
affirmative
negative
I/he/she/it/one was
I/he/she/it/one wasn’t Was I/he/she/it/one
Wasn’t I/he/she/it
runn
ing late.
running late.
running late?
running late?
(informal)
(informal)
I/he/she/it/one was not
Was I/he/she/it/one not
runn
ing late.
running late?
(more formal)
(more formal)
You/we/they were
You/we/they weren’t
Were you/we/they
Weren’t you/we/they
sleeping. (informal)
sleeping. (informal)
sleeping?
sleeping? (informal)
You/we/they were not
Were you/we/they not
sleeping.
sleeping?
(more formal)
(more formal)
The future progressive
224c
Progressive references to the future are formed with will/’ll/shall + be + -ing form
of the lexical verb. The table below shows the declarative and interrogative forms
of the future progressive.
The future progressive: declarative and interrogative forms
declarative
interrogative
affirmative
negative
affirmative
negative
(Subject)’ll be waiting
(Subject) won’t be
Will (subject) be
Won’t (subject) be
at the station.
waiting at the station. waiting at the
waiting at the station?
(informal)
(informal)
station?
(informal)
(Subject) will be
(Subject) will not be
Will (subject)not be
waiting at the
waiting at the station.
waiting at the station?
station.
(more formal)
(more formal)
(more formal)
Will not (subject) be
waiting at the station?
(very formal and now
considered archaic)
I/we shall be minding
I/we shan’t be
Shall I/we be
Shan’t I/we be minding
the children.
minding the
minding the
the children? (informal)
(more formal)
children.
children?
(informal)
Shall I/we not be
minding the children?
I/we shall not be
(more formal)
minding the children.
(more formal)
Shall not I/we be
minding the children?
(very formal and now
considered archaic)
414 | Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect
Cambridge Grammar of English
Where there is a choice between will and shall (i.e. with first person pronouns),
the forms with shall are more formal than those with will.
Û
492d The past progressive on progressive aspect in indirect reports
PERFECT ASPECT
225
Perfect aspect is concerned with the speaker’s perspective on the relationship
between one time frame and an event that takes place in another time frame.
An event which took place in the past may be seen as relevant to the present
moment. Likewise, an event due to take place in the future may be seen as
linked to the present moment. The table below gives examples of different time-
frame relationships.
Perfect aspect involves the use of auxiliary have + -ed participle of a lexical
verb. The tense may be present or past. Future perfect forms are created using
will/’ll/shall.
Examples of perfect aspect
example
form
time relationship
I’ve lived here about 25 years.
present perfect
the whole period from 25 years ago
till now
The flight is at 7.15. They’ve
present perfect
the time change happened between
changed the time.
some unspecified point in the past
and now
I had finished just before I
past perfect
the time I finished in relation to the time
went to work.
(in the past) when I went to work
That was about 1936. That
past perfect
the time we lived in Manchester in
was when we came to Stockport.
relation to 1936
We had lived in Manchester
before that.
Yesterday and tomorrow all
future perfect
yesterday and the period up to and
together I will have spent
including tomorrow
£100 on train fares.
In three years’ time, we’ll have
future perfect
the time between when we started living
lived here 20 years.
here and three years in the future from
now
They may have been confused.
modal perfect
a possible event during a time leading up
to now or up to a point in the past
Û
539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms
Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect | 415
The present perfect
225a
The declarative and interrogative forms of the present perfect simple are shown in
the table below.
The present perfect: declarative and interrogative forms
declarative
interrogative
affirmative
negative
affirmative
negative
I/you/we/they’ve
I/you/we/they
Have I/you/we/they
Haven’t I/you/we/they
worked.
haven’t worked.
worked?
worked?
(informal)
I/you/we/they’ve not
(informal)
worked.
I/you/we/they
(informal)
Have I/you/we/they not
have worked.
worked?
(more formal)
I/you/we/they have not
(more formal)
worked.
(more formal)
He/she/it/one’s
He/she/it/one hasn’t
Has he/she/it/one
Hasn’t he/she/it/one
worked.
worked.
worked?
worked?
(informal)
He/she/it/one’s not
(informal)
worked.
He/she/it/one has
(informal)
Has he/she/it/one not
worked.
worked?
(more formal)
He/she/it/one has not
(more formal)
worked.
(more formal)
The past perfect
225b
The past perfect simple forms are the same as the present perfect, but with had
being used instead of have and has, and ’d being used as the contracted form. The
table below shows the declarative and interrogative forms of the past perfect
simple.
The past perfect: declarative and interrogative forms
declarative
interrogative
affirmative
negative
affirmative
negative
I/you/we/they’d
I/you/we/they hadn’t
Had I/you/we/they
Hadn’t I/you/we/they
already started.
already started.
already started?
already started?
(informal)
I/you/we/they’d not
(informal)
already started.
I/you/we/they had
(informal)
Had I/you/we/they not
already started.
already started?
(more formal)
I/you/we/they had
(more formal)
not already started.
(more formal)
416 | Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect
Cambridge Grammar of English
continued
declarative
interrogative
affirmative
negative
affirmative
negative
He/she/it/one’d
He/she/it/one hadn’t
Had he/she/it/one
Hadn’t he/she/it/one
already started.
already started.
already started?
already started?
(informal)
He/she/it/one’d not
(informal)
already started.
He/she/it/one had
(informal)
Had he/she/it/one not
already started.
already started?
(more formal)
He/she/it had not
(more formal)
already started.
(more formal)
Perfect infinitive
225c
The infinitive form of the perfect aspect (following verbs such as hope, intend,
like, seem, and other structures requiring an infinitive) is formed with to have +
-ed participle:
I was hoping to have finished by now.
They don’t seem to have solved all the other problems.
Are you supposed to have fed the dog?
The perfect aspect may also occur in a non-tensed -ing form:
Having arrived eventually in Salt Lake City at 5.30 a.m. and walked around for
a couple of hours, I wandered into a downtown supermarket.
COMBINING PERFECT AND PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
226
The present and past perfect may both combine with progressive aspect:
I’ve been cycling for years through busy traffic.
This had been going on since September.
Û
539 Glossary for any unfamiliar terms
Verb phrase 2: tense and aspect | 417
Types of verb
Introduction
227
Lexical verbs
228
Regular verbs 228a
Irregular verbs 228b
The base form
229
The -s form
230
The -ing form
231
The -ed form
232
Auxiliary verbs
233
General 233a
Negative forms and auxiliary verbs 233b
Interrogative forms and auxiliary verbs 233c
Contracted forms of auxiliary verbs 233d
Ellipsis and substitution with auxiliary verbs 233e
Modal verbs
234
General 234a
Negative forms of modal verbs 234b
Interrogative forms of modal verbs 234c
Contracted forms of modal verbs 234d
Ellipsis and substitution with modal verbs 234e
Multi-word verbs
235
General 235a
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