Brief contents of the course

additional reading

1. 
   стр. 58-65
   
2. 
   стр. 34-38
   
3. 
   –
   
4. 
   стр. 220-237
   
5. 
   стр. 217-220, 226-228, 230-238
   

XIII. Adverbs. Classification of adverbs.

The adverb is defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs. Adverbs are characterized by combinability with verbs, adjectives and words of adverbial nature. The functions of adverbs in these combinations consist in expressing different adverbial modifiers. “The woman was crying hysterically.” – an adverbial modifier of manner. “He was nervously anxious’ – an adverbial modifier of property qualification.
From the point of view of the word-building structure adverbs can be simple (very, here, quite, when) and derived: suffix –ly (slowly, firstly), -ways (sideways, crossways), -wise (clockwise, counter-clockwise), -ward(s) (homewards, afterwards). The characteristic adverbial prefix is a- (away, ahead, apart, across).
Some adverbs are converted from other parts of speech: adjectives – fast, late, high, tight, many of them have another form, formed of adjective with the suffix –ly, but with a different meaning: to fall flat into the water – to refuse flatly, to fly high – to raise a highly theoretical question.
From adjectives with –ly adverbs are also converted – daily, weekly, lively, timely.
From prepositions and conjunctions – never before/ never before a meeting, somewhere round/round the corner, to hold within/within a week.
There is a group of preposition-adverb-like words, which form phrasal words – look up, through, after. They are intermediate between functional words and morphemes, particles of semi-morphemic nature.
The subgroups of adverbs – qualitative (-ly)- bitterly, plainly; quantitative (words of degree) and circumstantial (words of pronominal nature).
There are several types of quantitative adverbs, functional words, not possessing nominative value :

1. 
   adverbs of high degree, intensifiers: very, quite, entirely, utterly, highly, greatly, perfectly, absolutely, strongly, considerably, pretty, much.
   
2. 
   Adverbs of excessive degree (direct and reverse): too, awfully, tremendously, dreadfully, terrifically.
   
3. 
   Adverbs of unexpected degree: surprisingly, unexpectedly, astonishingly, amazingly.
   
4. 
   Adverbs of moderate degree: rather, fairly, comparatively, relatively, moderately.
   
5. 
   Adverbs of low degree: slightly, a little, a bit.
   
6. 
   Approximate degree: almost, nearly
   
7. 
   Optimal degree: enough, sufficiently, adequately
   
8. 
   Inadequate degree: insufficiently, intolerably, unbearably, ridiculously
   
9. 
   Under-degree: hardly, scarcely.
   
10. 
    Numerical-pronominal adverbs: twice, four times, twofold, manifold – they have full notional value
    

Circumstantial adverbs are also divided into notional and functional. The functional circumstantial adverbs are words of pronominal nature: time, place, manner, cause, consequence – now, here, when, where, so, thus, how, why. Others have nominative value: adverbs of time and place: today, tomorrow, already, ever, never, shortly, recently, seldom, early, late, homeward, eastward, near, far, outside, ashore.
Qualitative adverbs have the category of degrees of comparison: quickly-quicker-quickest-less quickly-least quickly. Adverbs converted from adjectives form degrees of comparison synthetically (fast-faster-fastest), so do “quickly” and “slowly”. Adverbs with the suffix –ly form degrees of comparison with more/most. Adverbs “well, far, much, little, badly” form suppletive degrees of comparison or based on the sound alternation.
Similar to adjectives, adverbs with “most” can be used as elative constructions: He described it most correctly. = very correctly.