Brief contents of the course

name	meaning	derivation	Grammar form	Combinabi-lity in phrases
Function in the sentence
noun	substance	-er, -ist, -ess, -ness, etc	Gender, number, case, article determination	Another noun (prepositional), verb, adjective, numeral	Subject, object, predicative, attributive, adverbial
adjective	property	-ful, - less, -ish, -ous, -ive, -ic, -ly, un-, im-.	Degrees of comparison for qualitative adjectives	Noun, adverb, verb	Attribute, predicative
Nume-ral	number	-teen, -ty, -th	no	Noun, adverb	attribute
Pro-noun	Indica-tion	Some-, any-, no-	Some categories have number, some have case	Noun, adjective, verb	Attribute, subject, predicative, object
verb	process	-ise, -ate, -ute, -er, -erve, etc	Mood, voice, person, number, aspect, tense	Noun, adverb, adjective, pronoun	predicate
adverb	Property of process or another property	-ly, -wise, --ways, --ward(s)	Degrees of comparison for qualitative adverbs	Verbs, adjectives	Various adverbial midifiers
statives	Different states, mostly temporary	Prefix a-	no	Verb, noun	Predicative, rarely – post-positional attributes

Contrasted against the notional parts of speech are words of incomplete nominative meaning and non-self-dependent, mediatory functions in the sentence. These are functional parts of speech. To them belong the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the modal word, the interjection.

name	Grammar meaning	usage
preposition	Relations between things or phenomena	With nouns, pronouns, numerals, adjectives form objects, predicatives, modifiers, attributes
conjunction	Connections between things or phenomena	Connect any words, phrases or clauses, adding the meaning of addition, contradiction, etc
particle	Show subjective attitude (even, only, exclusively)	Enter the part of the sentence formed by any word
Modal word	Attitude of the speaker (probably, luckily)	Show probability, evaluation, affirmation, negation
interjection	Signal of emotion	Detached position in the sentence

4. 
   Each part of speech after its identification is further subdivided into subseries according to various semantico-functional and formal features. The nouns are subcategorized into proper and common, animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract, etc.
   

Verbs are subcategorized into fully predicative and partially predicative, transitive and intransitive, active and stative, etc.
Adjectives are subcategorized into qualitative and relative.
6. Charles Fries, of the University of Michigan, in his book “The Structure of English” tried to build a system of classes, based on the position of the word in the sentence. His classification is called positional-distributive. Fries studied the combinability of words by a system of tests in substitution models of phrases and sentences.(The ______are good.) They used records of live dialogues comprising about 250,000 word entries (50 hours of talk). Notional words fill in positions in the models: the position of the doer, of the object, etc.) The words were classified into 4 formal classes- N – substantives, V – verbal words, A – adjectival words, D – adverbial words. Functional words appear in the models as occupying their positions as defining and adding to the meaning of the notional words. They form limited groups totalling 154 units. Those are noun determiners (articles, my-his, this), modal verbs that add to the meaning of notional verbs, intensifiers of adjectives and adverbs (rather cold). These are first type function words. The second type were prepositions and conjunctions, which show the relations of notional words. The 3^rd type of functional words influence the semantics of the whole sentence: question words, yes-no, requests, addresses. It is clear that this classification reflects traditional in many aspects, which is another proof of the objective character of classifications, as they are based on different methods, while the classification made by Fries is supported by experimental data. Structural grammar must be judged not as a complete system, but as a skeleton.
The semantico-grammatical analysis of the lexicon, the word-stock of the language, shows that it is divided into two parts: the notional words and the functional words. The unity of notional lexemes finds its demonstration in an inter-class system of derivation: strength-to strengthen-strong-strongly.
This derivational series that unites the notional word classes can be named the ‘lexical paradigm of nomination’. The general order of classes in the series evidently corresponds to the logic of mental perception of reality, by which a person discriminates, first, objects and their actions, then the properties of the former and the latter. By the initial class lexeme the lexical paradigms are classified into nounal (power-to empower- powerful – powerfully), verbal (to suppose – supposition – supposed – supposedly), adjectival (clear – clarity – to clarify – clearly), and adverbial (out – outing – to out – outer). Some words (simple adjectives ‘just’) can be nominatively isolated. The universal character of the nomination paradigm is sustained by suppletive completion, both lexemic and phrasemic:
An end – to end – final – finally
King – to reign – royal – royally
Game – to play – playful – playfully
Evidence – evident – evidently – to make evident
Wise – wisely – wisdom – to grow wise
Friend – to be friends – friendly – in a friendly way.
So, the lexicon can be divided into 3 unequal parts.
The first part of the lexicon forming an open set includes an indefinitely large number of notional words which have a complete nominative function, these words can be referred to as names: nouns as substance names, verbs as process names, adjectives as primary property names and adverbs as secondary property names. The whole notional set is represented by the four-stage derivational paradigm of nomination.
The second , intermediate layer of the lexicon forming a closed set includes substitutes of names (pro-names), Here belong pronouns, and also broad-meaning words and numbers. . Broad meaning words adjoin the pronouns by their substitutional function (one, thing, do, make, such, there, then…
The third part of the lexicon also forming a closed set includes function words.
The function of the second and third layers, within the framework of their specifying role, is to organize together with the categorial means of grammar, the production of speech utterances out of the direct naming means of language (the first layer).