Brief contents of the course

Glossary of linguistic terms:

1. 
   pragmatic - практический
   
2. 
   co-ordinate - сложносочиненный
   
3. 
   clause – придаточное предложение
   
4. 
   agent – агенс, со значением действующего лица
   
5. 
   patient – пациенс, со значением объекта действия
   

additional reading:

1. 
   стр. 182
   
2. 
   стр. 163 – 172
   
3. 
   стр. 144- 147
   
4. 
   стр. 255- 262
   
5. 
   стр. 256- 266
   

XXX. Semantic and pragmatic aspects of the sentence

The sentence as a lingual unit performs two semantic functions (as opposed to word and phrase, which have only the function of nomination) – first – substance-naming, or nominative function, second – reality-evaluating, or predicative function. The semantics of the sentence presents a unity of its nominative and predicative aspects, while the semantics of the word is monoaspective.
The notional parts of the sentence, referring to the basic elements of the reflected situation (знаменательные члены предложения, которые соотносятся с основными элементами ситуации, отраженной в предложении) form the nominative meaning of the sentence.
The semantic reflections of the elements of the situation, in contrast to the part of the sentence (upper case) make up the semantic roles or the “deeper cases”. It is only through the sentence constituents that the situation together with its various elements can be reflected. The semantic roles of the sentence are situational meanings of the syntactic parts.
The division of the sentence into notional parts, or the nominative division can be shown by a syntagmatic model and will be described as models of syntactic analyses: immediate constituents, distributional model and transformational model.
The division from the point of view of semantic contribution of the sentence parts is called the actual division.

The sentence is a communicative unit, therefore from the point of view of the function they can be classified into declarative, imperative and interrogative. These communicative types stand in strict opposition to one another, and their inner properties of form and meaning are immediately correlated with the corresponding features of the response.

Thus, declarative sentence expresses a statement, either affirmative or negative, and corresponds with responses of attention, agreement or disagreement. – I want to be given reasons for publishing the poem. – I have the same opinion.
The imperative sentence expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative. It urges the listener to perform of not to perform a certain action. It is connected with “action response” Silence on the part of the listener is also linguistically relevant. In the literary narration it is shown by special comments: Knock on the wood – he leaned forward and knocked three times on the barrier.
The interrogative sentence expresses a question, i.e. a request for information. It is connected with an answer, forming together a dialogue unity.
Ways of expressing different purposes of communication are studied by the branch of linguistics called “pragmatic linguistics”. Each speech act is characterized by a definite communicative intention: statements of facts, conjectures (предположение), confirmations, refutations (опровержение), agreements, disagreements, commands, requests, greetings at meeting, at parting, exhortations (убеждение), recommendations, applications for information, supplications, promises, menaces, etc. Among them there are two mutually opposed pragmatic utterance types, constative utterances and performative utterances. Constative utterances express the speaker’s reflections of reality as they are, performative are verbal actions. Pronouncing a performative utterance, the speaker performs his complete action: I declare the conference open. The performance utterance includes (or implies) the pronoun of the 1^st person singular (the direct indication of the speaker), while its verb is used only in the form of the present tense of the indicative mood active.
From the point of view of the actual division the interrogative sentence is rhematically gapping, its function consists only in marking the rhematic position in the response sentence. Different types of questions present different types of open rhemes. In the pronominal (special) question, the interrogative pronoun is immediately connected with the part of the sentence denoting the object about which the inquiry is made. The gapping meaning is to be replaced in the answer by the wanted information. Thus, the rheme of the answer is the substitute of the interrogative pronoun, the two make up a rhematic unity in the broader question-answer construction. As for the thematic part of the answer, it is already expressed in the question, therefore it is usually zeroed: Why do you think so? – Because I keep my eyes open.
The rheme of general and alternative questions is quite different. It is also open, but it consists in at least two semantic suggestions, presented for the choice. The answer closes the suggested alternative. – Will you take it away or open it here?
Thus, in terms of rhematic substitution, the special question is a question of unlimited substitution choice, while the general and alternative question is a question of a limited substitution choice.
In the structural framework of the interrogative sentence a statement can be expressed – a rhetorical question. Responses to rhetorical questions exactly correspond to responses to declarative sentences. – How can a woman be expected to be happy? – My dear!- Expression of fellow feeling. The rheme of this question is not open.
The imperative sentences in the form of a question occupy intermediary position between imperative and interrogative sentences, which is done in order to soften the meaning of command by adding a meaning of request.
Could you help me up the stairs?