Forced Labour
For years one of the most egregious human rights abuses in Uzbekistan has been its systematic and
widespread use of forced labour to pick its cotton, the country’s primary cash crop nicknamed Oq
Oltin (white gold). After independence Uzbekistan continued with Soviet era practices through which
a ‘state order’ system would give each regional government a quota to fulfil for the production of
cotton and wheat. Regional government would work with lower tiers of local government and state
owned enterprises to make public sector workers participated in picking the cotton crop. The
situation was exacerbated in the immediate post-Soviet period as due to the dissolution of Soviet
Machine Tractor Parks and wider economic challenges, the proportion of cotton collected through
mechanisation (primarily specialised combine harvesters) fell from 40 per cent in 1992 to four per
cent in 1997.
95
For ordinary Uzbeks the experience of forced labour could involve being deployed to work in the
fields for several weeks, in some cases several months, in the late summer and early autumn
(particularly September and October) to pick cotton by hand, though wealthier people were often
able to pay others to handle their personal quota (a trend that has increased as a proportion of
overall forced labour recent years). Child labour was a significant problem, both as a result of
children being required to work (often organised through schools) and due to parents being required
take children with them due to lack of childcare.
96
In the last full year of Karimov’s rule (2015) the
ILO’s surveys estimate that 3.4 million Uzbeks participated in the cotton harvest in some capacity, of
which 448,000 were identified as being forced, though campaigners put the figure considerably
higher.
97
In response to the systemic use of forced and child labour a group of Uzbek and international human
rights activists and trade unionists formed the Cotton Campaign, to help pressure the global garment
industry to pledge that it would boycott the use of Uzbek cotton. The campaign, one of whose key
92
As Seitz notes 5 million, predominantly urban, homes previously owned by the State Housing Fund were privatised in the 1991-93 period
in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union.
93
Both Seitz figure 4 and using more recent figures for comparator cities from: Wendell Cox, Demographia International Housing
Affordability Survey Executive Summary, January 2019, New Geography, https://www.newgeography.com/content/006201-15th-annual-
demographia-international-housing-affordability-survey-2019
94
Services that could be delivered by either the private sector or using cooperative or local authority led models.
95
Deniz Kandiyoti, Invisible To the World? The Dynamics of Forced Child Labour in the Cotton Sector of Uzbekistan, SOAS,
https://www.soas.ac.uk/cccac/events/cotton-sector-in-central-asia-2005/file49842.pdf
96
Ibid.
97
ILO, Third-party monitoring of child labour and forced labour during the 2019 cotton harvest in Uzbekistan, 2020,
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_735873.pdf
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23
members the Uzbek Forum for Human Rights has contributed an essay on cotton for this collection,
was highly successful in removing Uzbek cotton from the supply chains of major Western oriented
brands.
Child labour was formally banned in 2012 in a decree by then PM Mirziyoyev, who was heavily
involved in the supervision of the cotton harvests under Karimov. Systematic use of child labour
dramatically decreased from the 2013 harvest onwards to a point today when all but a few isolated
cases remain.
98
In 2013, following pressure on World Bank and the widening boycott, the ILO was permitted to
undertake its first monitoring mission, with a widespread ILO led third party monitoring scheme
coming into place in 2015.
99
The ILO identified dramatic falls in forced labour from 448,000 in both
2015 and 2016 to 364,000 in 2017, 170,000 in 2018 and 102,000 in 2019.
100
Wages per kilogram (kg)
of cotton picked have significantly increased in parallel, from 280 soms per kg in 2016 to between
700-1300 soms per kg in 2018 and 800-1400 soms per kg in 2019. The 2019 Harvest saw a tenfold
increase in government officials (259 in total) being fined for forced labour violations. The continuing
problem of forced labour, its messages about its criminalisation and the Government’s policy goal of
eliminating it, are now being discussed openly and regularly by government officials and in the Uzbek
media, including in state outlets.
101
While a significant improvement 102,000 people being forced to pick cotton is still poses an
enormous challenge.
102
In the 2019 harvest both the ILO and Cotton Campaign monitors agreed that
the prohibition on the use of nurses, doctors, teaches and student had been observed but that some
initiatives at a local government level in the regions still led to some in middle income jobs or
businesses being required to pay for pickers. The use of 2100 firefighters, following a decree by the
Ministry of Emergencies, and military cadets and conscripts (at the direction of the Ministry of
Defense) have been confirmed, although according to the ILO as these workers were paid this was
not technically forced labour though still in breach of its standards.
103
Concerns have also been raised
around (state) bank lending to farmers for machinery, seed and other supplies being tied to
commitments to producing set amounts of cotton, which led to forced labour being provided both
through local government and in some cases by the banks themselves providing staff as pickers or
paying for others to bring in the cotton.
104
There are enduring concerns that the privatisation of the cotton harvest, through the ‘clusters’ which
vertically integrate farming, harvesting, processing and in many cases the manufacture of textiles,
will not necessarily bring forced labour to an end. The opaque ownership structures of clusters can
mask the influence of local power brokers, who are or who are working closely with local officials to
continue to pressure people into working in the fields. Transferring forced labour from official state
98
Ibrat Safo and William Kremer, Doctors and nurses forced to pick cotton, BBC News, October 2012,
https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19931639; Cotton Campaign, Pick All the Cotton: Update on Uzbekistan’s Use of Forced Child
Labour in 2009 Harvest, December 2009,
http://www.cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/uzbekcottonfall09update.pdf
99
ILO, Third Party Monitoring on Child and Forced Labour in Uzbekistan, https://www.ilo.org/moscow/projects/WCMS_704979/lang--
en/index.htm
100
ILO, Third-party monitoring of child labour and forced labour during the 2019 cotton harvest in Uzbekistan, 2020,
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_norm/---ipec/documents/publication/wcms_735873.pdf
101
Jonas Astrup, Twitter Post, Twitter, September 2019, https://twitter.com/AstrupILO/status/1177644244414210049?s=20
102
It is worth noting that in the essay by Lynn Schweisfurth of the Uzbek Forum she notes some scepticism that the ILO’s data is fully
capturing the scale of the continuing problems. However given the lack of other hard data, the detailed work that has gone into the ILO’s
process and the fact that its figures are comparable year on year they provide the best place to start when examining the overall trends in
the reduction of forced labour.
103
Uzbek Forum for Human Rights, Cotton Harvest in Uzbekistan – 2019, March 2020, https://www.uzbekforum.org/cotton-harvest-in-
uzbekistan-2019/
104
Uzbek Forum for Human Rights, The accountability gap: Are Uzbek bank officials really organizing nationwide forced labor?, February
2020, https://www.uzbekforum.org/the-accountability-gap-are-uzbek-bank-officials-really-organizing-nationwide-forced-labor/
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24
policy to the province of localised corruption and private gain must be avoided at all costs. As
mentioned above farmers too have complained about late payments, land confiscation and coercive
practices by the new clusters.
105
On March 6
th
2020 a Presidential Decree was ending the state order system in 2020 so that farmers
who rent land from the state would be free to determine their own output levels and choice of
cotton crop ahead of the 2020 harvest, as well as expediting further planned changes to liberalise
prices and bank lending.
106
This went faster than a number of experts had previously predicted and
that was set out in the 2019 agricultural development strategy, which looked at a phased approach
by 2023.
107
The combination of a strong relationship between the ILO and Government and sustained external
pressure has helped drive the changes forward on the ground. However, there is a clear difference of
opinion over the relative merits of supporting and pressuring the Government of Uzbekistan into
ending forced labour once and for all, rooted in different theories of change. The ILO sees its role as
supporting those in Government who have been driving the reforms, something that includes
praising progress so far to help give reformers the political ‘wins’ needed internally to keep progress
going and to build the case for further international support to complete the reforms. To that end,
the ILO has supported Government efforts to end the international boycott of the Uzbek Cotton
sector, arguing that this will allow further increases in wages and spur investment in mechanisation
to root out remaining pockets of forced labour. Other supporters of now ending the boycott have
made wider arguments including about how normalisation would end smuggling that currently sees
Uzbek cotton on international markets posing as products of other nations and encourage Western
investment into the sector (with perceptions of higher labour and environmental standards) rather
than relying on Russian and Chinese investment.
108
The debate has been added given added impetus by the COVID-19 outbreak that came shortly after
constructive but inconclusive discussions between the Cotton Campaign representatives and the
Government of Uzbekistan. The Government of Uzbekistan has made a public call for the ending of
the boycott to help the economy weather the impact of the COVID-19 crisis including challenge of
rising unemployment and the return of labour migrants.
109
However the Cotton Campaign, as Lynn
Schweisfurth makes clear in this collection, stand by their call for the Government to enable the
registration of independent human rights and cotton monitoring non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) to provide oversight of the efforts to completely end forced labour as a precondition for
lifting the boycott.
110
The transition to the cluster model provides both new economic opportunities
but new areas where monitoring will be required to prevent the use of forced or coerced labour, not
only in the cotton fields but in the emerging textile factories that are developing in dispersed
communities potentially away from necessary scrutiny.
105
Uzbek Forum for Human Rights, Cotton clusters and the despair of Uzbek farmers: land confiscations , blank contracts and failed
payments, April 2020, https://www.uzbekforum.org/cotton-clusters-and-the-despair-of-uzbek-farmers-land-confiscations-blank-contracts-
and-failed-payments/
106
Eurasianet, Uzbekistan scraps cotton state-order system, March 2020, https://eurasianet.org/uzbekistan-scraps-cotton-state-order-
system; RFE/RL, Presidential Decree: The cotton-growing schedule and its purchase price will be abolished, March 2020,
https://www.ozodlik.org/a/%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0-%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0-/30472124.html
107
From conversations with international officials and cotton campaigners see also: Kun.uz, Jamshid Khobzhaev called the abolition of
state orders for cotton and grain a turning point in the life of 60% of the population, February 2020, https://kun.uz/ru/72675268
108
Centre 1, Shukhrat Ganiev: five reasons to cancel the boycott of Uzbek cotton, May 2019, https://centre1.com/uzbekistan/shuhrat-
ganiev-pyat-prichin-otmenit-bojkot-uzbekskogo-hlopka/?fbclid=IwAR18Mz_pVf06RzrfDUk_JGKLfl23Sp5ngVJ0ymPUTOdxLfvXB986d86Gtng
109
Ministry of Employment and Labor Relations of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Open letter to Cotton Campaign Coalition of removing the
Uzbek Cotton Pledge, April 2020, https://mehnat.uz/en/news/open-letter-to-cotton-campaign-coalition-on-removing-the-uzbek-cotton-
pledge
110
Julian K. Hughes and Nate Herman, It’s Not Time to End the Uzbek Cotton Boycott Yet, Foreign Policy May 2020,
https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/05/28/uzbek-international-cotton-boycott/
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25
At present, neither the local human rights activists who work with the ILO nor those who work with
the Cotton Campaign have been able to register the local NGOs despite repeated attempts (part of
wider restrictions on independent NGOs discussed below). Harassment against unregistered
monitors and investigative journalists has significantly reduced but still continues and those who
have sacrificed so much to help bring the practice of forced labour to an end must have an
opportunity to play a part in the future. To achieve international credibility and trust in Uzbek cotton
there needs to be an ongoing role for the Cotton Campaign, both its local partners and international
networks, in providing monitoring and assurance about the forced labour situation in Uzbekistan
including examining conditions in the emerging processing and textile operations within the clusters.
If Uzbekistan wants to build international support for ending the boycott, allowing the NGO
registration of both the Cotton Campaign’s local partners and of those working with the ILO would
seem to be a crucial step, along with registrations of independent trade unions for seasonal
agricultural workers.
111
Given the economic challenges facing Uzbekistan post-COVID 19 the urgency of finding a pathway to
end the boycott is stronger than ever but it is essential that Uzbekistan remains on the path to
rapidly end outstanding cases of forced labour. In the longer-term, the development of independent
trade unions will be crucial in labour organising and protecting workers from exploitation, so changes
in this area must form part of Uzbekistan’s reform process. As Bennet Freeman of the Cotton
Campaign puts it ‘the issue is less whether to end the pledge - but when and how - and above all,
how ending it can become a catalyst for responsible sourcing and investment’.
112
The process of
opening up the cotton sector to international markets needs to be expedited to meet Uzbekistan’s
economic needs and bolster the improvements in rural wages and the registration of cotton focused
NGOs and independent unions (as a key step in delivering the wider process of NGO reform) would
seem a small price for the Government to pay to strengthen international confidence that the final
steps of eradicating forced labour are to be achieved and sustained.
113
It is worth noting that the Uzbek Forum for Human Rights and others have also documented reports
of forced labour being used to carryout local infrastructure and renovation work as part of the Obod
Qishloq (prosperous villages) program, by abusing the Soviet era concept of hashar , whereby
residents come together to carry out voluntary work for the benefit of their communities. According
to the Forum ‘by labelling public works as hashar, local officials are able to forcibly recruit employees
of both state-owned and private enterprises to work without pay and often under difficult and
dangerous conditions rather than creating new — paid — employment opportunities’.
114
There have
also been reports from RFE/RL that despite the COVID-19 lockdown in late March 2020 hundreds of
residents were pressed into work assisting city officials beautify Andijan before a Presidential visit.
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