Bioengineering 2021 ,
8 , x FOR PEER REVIEW
8 of 29
Tefluthrin Pyrethroid
Interruption of functioning of the nervous system, inter-
fering with sodium channels.
Aldicarb Carbamate
Inhibition of cholinesterase prevents the breakdown of
acetylcholine in the synapse. It leads to respiratory fail-
ure.
λ
-cyhalothrin Pyrethroid
Interference with nerve signaling by inhibition of the
membrane sodium channel systems.
Permethrin Pyrethroid
Interference with sodium channels disrupts the function
of neurons and causes muscles to spasm, culminating in
paralysis and death.
Terbufos Organophosphate
Inactivation of acetylcholinesterase by phosphorylation
of the hydroxyl group of serine present at the active site
of the enzyme.
Chlorpyrifos Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Methyl-parathion Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Dimethoate Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Carbofuran Carbamate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
2.2.2. Herbicides
Herbicides are used to control and remove undesirable plants and weeds. These com-
pounds are mainly applied in agricultural soils, before or during farming to maximize
crop productivity. Herbicides are also used in forest management and in suburban and
urban areas.
Inactivation of acetylcholinesterase by
phosphorylation of the hydroxyl group
of serine present at the active site of
the enzyme.
Chlorpyrifos
Organophosphate
Bioengineering 2021 ,
8 , x FOR PEER REVIEW
8 of 29
Tefluthrin Pyrethroid
Interruption of functioning of the nervous system, inter-
fering with sodium channels.
Aldicarb Carbamate
Inhibition of cholinesterase prevents the breakdown of
acetylcholine in the synapse. It leads to respiratory fail-
ure.
λ
-cyhalothrin Pyrethroid
Interference with nerve signaling by inhibition of the
membrane sodium channel systems.
Permethrin Pyrethroid
Interference with sodium channels disrupts the function
of neurons and causes muscles to spasm, culminating in
paralysis and death.
Terbufos Organophosphate
Inactivation of acetylcholinesterase by phosphorylation
of the hydroxyl group of serine present at the active site
of the enzyme.
Chlorpyrifos Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Methyl-parathion Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Dimethoate Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Carbofuran Carbamate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
2.2.2. Herbicides
Herbicides are used to control and remove undesirable plants and weeds. These com-
pounds are mainly applied in agricultural soils, before or during farming to maximize
crop productivity. Herbicides are also used in forest management and in suburban and
urban areas.
Disruption of nervous systems by
inactivation of acetylcholinesterase.
Methyl-parathion
Organophosphate
Bioengineering 2021 ,
8 , x FOR PEER REVIEW
8 of 29
Tefluthrin Pyrethroid
Interruption of functioning of the nervous system, inter-
fering with sodium channels.
Aldicarb Carbamate
Inhibition of cholinesterase prevents the breakdown of
acetylcholine in the synapse. It leads to respiratory fail-
ure.
λ
-cyhalothrin Pyrethroid
Interference with nerve signaling by inhibition of the
membrane sodium channel systems.
Permethrin Pyrethroid
Interference with sodium channels disrupts the function
of neurons and causes muscles to spasm, culminating in
paralysis and death.
Terbufos Organophosphate
Inactivation of acetylcholinesterase by phosphorylation
of the hydroxyl group of serine present at the active site
of the enzyme.
Chlorpyrifos Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Methyl-parathion Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Dimethoate Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Carbofuran Carbamate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
2.2.2. Herbicides
Herbicides are used to control and remove undesirable plants and weeds. These com-
pounds are mainly applied in agricultural soils, before or during farming to maximize
crop productivity. Herbicides are also used in forest management and in suburban and
urban areas.
Disruption of nervous systems by
inactivation of acetylcholinesterase.
Dimethoate
Organophosphate
Bioengineering 2021 ,
8 , x FOR PEER REVIEW
8 of 29
Tefluthrin Pyrethroid
Interruption of functioning of the nervous system, inter-
fering with sodium channels.
Aldicarb Carbamate
Inhibition of cholinesterase prevents the breakdown of
acetylcholine in the synapse. It leads to respiratory fail-
ure.
λ
-cyhalothrin Pyrethroid
Interference with nerve signaling by inhibition of the
membrane sodium channel systems.
Permethrin Pyrethroid
Interference with sodium channels disrupts the function
of neurons and causes muscles to spasm, culminating in
paralysis and death.
Terbufos Organophosphate
Inactivation of acetylcholinesterase by phosphorylation
of the hydroxyl group of serine present at the active site
of the enzyme.
Chlorpyrifos Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Methyl-parathion Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Dimethoate Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Carbofuran Carbamate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
2.2.2. Herbicides
Herbicides are used to control and remove undesirable plants and weeds. These com-
pounds are mainly applied in agricultural soils, before or during farming to maximize
crop productivity. Herbicides are also used in forest management and in suburban and
urban areas.
Disruption of nervous systems by
inactivation of acetylcholinesterase.
Carbofuran
Carbamate
Bioengineering 2021 ,
8 , x FOR PEER REVIEW
8 of 29
Tefluthrin Pyrethroid
Interruption of functioning of the nervous system, inter-
fering with sodium channels.
Aldicarb Carbamate
Inhibition of cholinesterase prevents the breakdown of
acetylcholine in the synapse. It leads to respiratory fail-
ure.
λ
-cyhalothrin Pyrethroid
Interference with nerve signaling by inhibition of the
membrane sodium channel systems.
Permethrin Pyrethroid
Interference with sodium channels disrupts the function
of neurons and causes muscles to spasm, culminating in
paralysis and death.
Terbufos Organophosphate
Inactivation of acetylcholinesterase by phosphorylation
of the hydroxyl group of serine present at the active site
of the enzyme.
Chlorpyrifos Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Methyl-parathion Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Dimethoate Organophosphate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
Carbofuran Carbamate
Disruption of nervous systems by inactivation of acetyl-
cholinesterase.
2.2.2. Herbicides
Herbicides are used to control and remove undesirable plants and weeds. These com-
pounds are mainly applied in agricultural soils, before or during farming to maximize
crop productivity. Herbicides are also used in forest management and in suburban and
urban areas.
Disruption of nervous systems by
inactivation of acetylcholinesterase.
2.2.2. Herbicides
Herbicides are used to control and remove undesirable plants and weeds. These
compounds are mainly applied in agricultural soils, before or during farming to maximize
crop productivity. Herbicides are also used in forest management and in suburban and
urban areas.
The modes of action depend on the chemical composition, and usually, they involve
a plant enzyme or a biological system. In this way, the regular plant growth and devel-
opments are injured or disrupted, causing eventual plant death [
51
]. In Table
4
, different
herbicides used in agriculture soil are reported.