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Main articles: History of Australia (1788–1850) and History of Australia (1851–1900)
Tasmania's Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed Australian Convict Sites
The British continued to push into other areas of the continent in the early 19th century, initially along the coast. In 1803, a settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania),[75] and in 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, opening the interior to European settlement.[76] The British claim extended to the whole Australian continent in 1827 when Major Edmund Lockyer established a settlement on King George Sound (modern-day Albany).[77] The Swan River Colony (present-day Perth) was established in 1829, evolving into the largest Australian colony by area, Western Australia.[78] In accordance with population growth, separate colonies were carved from New South Wales: Tasmania in 1825, South Australia in 1836, New Zealand in 1841, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859.[79] South Australia was founded as a "free province" — it was never a penal colony.[80] Western Australia was also founded "free" but later accepted transported convicts, the last of which arrived in 1868, decades after transportation had ceased to the other colonies.[81]
In 1823, a Legislative Council nominated by the governor of New South Wales was established, together with a new Supreme Court, thus limiting the powers of colonial governors.[82] Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, thus becoming elective democracies managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire.[83] The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs[84] and defence.[85]
In the mid-19th century, explorers such as Burke and Wills went further inland to determine its agricultural potential and answer scientific questions.[86] A series of gold rushes beginning in the early 1850s led to an influx of new migrants from China, North America and continental Europe,[87] as well as outbreaks of bushranging and civil unrest; the latter peaked in 1854 when Ballarat miners launched the Eureka Rebellion against gold license fees.[
On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, constitutional conventions and referendums, resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia as a nation and the entering into force of the Australian Constitution.[89]
After the 1907 Imperial Conference, Australia and several other self-governing British settler colonies were given the status of self-governing "dominions" within the British Empire.[90][91] Australia was one of the founding members of the League of Nations in 1920,[92] and subsequently of the United Nations in 1945.[93] Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom. Australia adopted it in 1942,[94] but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II.[95][96]
The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed.[97] The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911.[98] Australia became the colonial ruler of the Territory of Papua (which had initially been annexed by Queensland in 1883)[99] in 1902 and of the Territory of New Guinea (formerly German New Guinea) in 1920. The two were unified as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea in 1949 and gained independence from Australia in 1975.[100][101][102]
The 1942 Bombing of Darwin, the first of over 100 Japanese air raids on Australia during World War II
In 1914, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the First World War, and took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front.[103] Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.[104] Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli in 1915 as the nation's "baptism of fire" — its first major military action,[105][106] with the anniversary of the landing at Anzac Cove commemorated each year on Anzac Day.[107]
From 1939 to 1945, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the Second World War. Australia's armed forces fought in the Pacific, European and Mediterranean and Middle East theatres.[108][109] The shock of Britain's defeat in Asia in 1942, followed soon after by the bombing of Darwin and other Japanese attacks on Australian soil, led to a widespread belief in Australia that a Japanese invasion was imminent, and a shift from the United Kingdom to the United States as Australia's principal ally and security partner.[110] Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the United States, under the ANZUS treaty.[111]
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