vis-a-vis those in the country. The enhanced opportunities in post-secondary education and
graduate education meant increased access to the educated elite. Meanwhile, from 1918 the
ethnic Russian intelligentsia was being pushed to the margins.
In the Twenties students already enrolled in institutions of higher learning were expelled
based on a social origins policy. Children of the nobility, the clergy, government bureaucrats,
military officers, merchants, even children of petty shop keepers were expelled. Applicants from
these classes and children of the intelligentsia were denied entry to institutions of higher learning
in the years that followed. As a nationality repressed by the Czar’s regime, Jews did not receive
this treatment. Despite their bourgeois origin, Jewish youth was freely accepted in institutions of
higher learning. Jews were forgiven for not being proletarian.
According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, “with the absence of limitations based upon
nationality for entry to institutions of higher learning, Jews came to make up 15.4 percent of all
university students in the USSR, almost twice their proportion of the urban population at large.”
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Further, owing to a high level of motivation Jews quickly bypassed the unprepared proletarian
factory workers who had been pushed forward in the education system, and proceeded
unhindered into graduate school. In the Twenties and Thirties and for a long time after, Jews
were a disproportionately large part of the intelligentsia.
According to G. Aronson, wide access to higher and specialized education led to the
formation of cadres of doctors, teachers and particularly engineers and technical workers among
Jews, which naturally led to university faculty posts in the expanding system of higher education
and in the widely proliferating research institutions. In the beginning of 1920s, the post of the
State Chair of Science was occupied not by a scientist but a Bolshevik official, Mandelshtam-
Lyadov.
Even sharper changes gripped the economic life of the country. Bukharin publicly
announced at a Communist Party conference in 1927 that “during War Communism, we purged
the Russian petty and middle bourgeoisie along with leading capitalists. When the economy was
later opened up to free trade petty and middle Jewish bourgeoisie took the place of the Russian
bourgeoisie and roughly the same happened with our Russian intelligentsia which bucked and
sabotaged our efforts. Its place has been taken in some areas by the Jewish intelligentsia.
Moreover, Jewish bourgeousie and intelligentsia are concentrated in our central regions and
cities, where they moved in from western provinces and southern towns. Here even in the Party
ranks one often encounters anti-Semitic tendencies. Comrades, we must wage a fierce battle
against anti-Semitism.”
Bukharin described a situation that was obvious to all. Unlike the Russian bourgeosie, the
Jewish bourgeoisie was not destroyed. The Jewish merchant, much less likely to be damned as a
man of the past, found defenders, relatives or sympathizers in the Soviet apparatus who warned
about impending arrests or seizures. And if he lost anything, it was just capital, not life.
Cooperation was quasi-official through the Jewish Commissariat at the Sovnarkom. The Jews
until now had been a repressed people and that meant, naturally, they needed help. Larin
explained the destruction of the Russian bourgeoisie as a correction of the injustice that existed
under the Czars before the Revolution.
When the NEP (New Economic Policy) was crushed, the blow fell with less force against
Jewish NEPmen, owing to connections in Soviet ruling circles.
Bukharin had been speaking in answer to a remarkable speech by Prof. Y.V.
Klyutchnikov, a publicist and a former Kadet. In December 1926, the professor spoke at a
meeting on the Jewish question at the Moscow Conservatory. “We have isolated expressions of
hooliganism… Its source is the hurt national feelings of Russians. The February Revolution
established the equality of all citizens of Russia, including Jews. The October Revolution went
further with the Russian nation proclaiming self-renunciation. A certain imbalance has developed
with respect to the proportion of the Jewish population in the country as a whole and the
positions they have temporarily occupied in the cities. We are in our own cities and they arrive
and squeeze us out. When Russians see Russian women, elders and children freezing on the
street 9 to 11 hours a day, getting soaked by the rain in their tents at the market, and then they
see relatively warm covered Jewish kiosks with bread and sausage, they are not happy. These
phenomena are catastrophic and must be considered. There is a terrible disproportion in the
government structure, in daily life and in other areas… We have a housing crisis in Moscow.
Masses of people are crowding into areas not fit for habitation and at the same time people see
others pouring in from other parts of the country taking up housing. These arrivals are Jews. A
national dissatisfaction is rising and a defensiveness and fear of other nationalities. We must not
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close our eyes to that. A Russian speaking to a Russian will say things that he will not say to a
Jew. Many are saying that there are too many Jews in Moscow. This must be dealt with, but
don’t call it anti-Semitism”.
But Larin regarded Klyutchnikov’s speech as a manifestation of anti-Semitism, saying
“this speech serves as an example of the good nature of Soviet power in its battle against anti-
Semitism because Klyutchnikov was roundly criticized by speakers who followed at the same
meeting, but no administrative measures were taken against him.” (Here it is, the frustration of
the Communist activist!) Agursky writes: “One would expect repression to swiftly follow for
such a speech in the Twenties and Thirties,” but Klyutchnikov got off. Maybe he received secret
support from some quarters? But why look for secret causes? It would have been too much of a
scandal to punish such a famous publicist, who just returned from abroad and could have harmed
the reverse migration that was so important for Soviet authorities [return of people who
emigrated from Russia during previous period of revolutions and Civil War.]
The Twenties were spoken of as the conquest by the Jews of Russian capital cities and
industrial centers where conditions were better. As well, there was a migration to the better areas
within the cities. G. Fedotov describes Moscow at that time: “The revolution deformed its soul,
turning it inside out, emptying out its mansions, and filling them with a foreign and alien
people.” A Jewish joke from the era: “Even from Berdichev and even the very old come to
Moscow: they want to die in a Jewish city.”
In a private letter in 1927 V.I. Vernadsky writes: “Moscow now is like Berdichev; the
power of Jewry is enormous - and anti-Semitism (including in communist circles) is growing
unabated”.
Larin: “We do not hide figures that demonstrate growth of the Jewish population in urban
centers. It is completely unavoidable and will continue into the future.” He forecast the
migration from Ukraine and Byelorussia of an additional 600,000 Jews. “We can’t look upon this
as something shameful, that the party would silence… we must create a spirit in the working
class so that anyone who gives a speech against the arrival of Jews in Moscow would be
considered a counter-revolutionary”.
And for counter-revolutionaries there is nine grams of lead - that much is clear.
But, what to do about anti-Semitic tendencies even in our party circles was a concern in
the upper levels of the party. According to official data reported in Pravda in 1922, Jews made
up 5.2 percent of the party. M. Agursky: “But their actual influence was considerably more. In
that same year at the 11th Communist Party Congress Jews made up 14.6 percent of the voting
delegates, 18.3 percent of the non-voting delegates and 26 percent of those elected to the Central
Committee at the conference”. (Sometimes one accidentally comes upon such data: a taciturn
memoirist from Moscow opens Pravda in July, 1930 and notes: “The portrait of the 25-member
Presidium of the Communist Party included eleven Russians, eight Jews, three from the
Caucasus, and three Latvians.” In the large cities, close to areas of the former Pale of Settlement,
the following data: In the early Twenties party organizations in Minsk, Gomel and Vitebsk in
1922 were, respectively, 35.8 percent, 21.1 percent, and 16.6 percent Jewish, respectively. Larin
notes: “Jewish revolutionaries play a bigger part than any others in revolutionary activity, thanks
to their qualities, Jewish workers often find it easier to rise to positions of local leadership.”
In the same issue of Pravda, it is noted that Jews at 5.2 percent of the Party were in the
third place after Russians (72 percent) and Ukrainians (5 percent), followed by Latvians (2.5
percent) and then Georgians, Tatars, Poles and Byelorussians. Jews had the highest rate of per
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capita party membership - 7.2 percent of Jews were in the party versus 3.8 percent for Great
Russians.
M. Agursky correctly notes that in absolute numbers the majority of communists were, of
course, Russians, but “the unusual role of Jews in leadership was dawning on the Russians.” It
was just too obvious.
For instance, Zinoviev gathered many Jews around himself in the Petersburg leadership.
Agursky suggests this was what Larin was referring to in his discussion of the photograph of the
Presidium of Petrograd Soviet in 1918 in his book. By 1921 the preponderance of Jews in
Petrograd CP organization was apparently so odious that the Politburo, reflecting on the lessons
of Kronstadt and the anti-Semitic mood of Petrograd, decided to send several ethnic Russian
communists to Petrograd, though entirely for publicity purposes. So Uglanov took the place of
Zorin-Homberg as head of Gubkom; Komarov replaced Trilisser and Semyonov went to the
Cheka. But Zinoviev objected to the decision of Politboro and fought the new group, and as a
result Uglanov was recalled from Petrograd and a purely Russian opposition group formed
spontaneously in the Petrograd organization, a group forced to counter the rest of the
organization whose tone was set by Jews.
But not only in Petrograd. At the 12th Communist Party Congress (1923) three out of six
Politburo members were Jewish. Three out of seven were Jews in the leadership of the
Komsomol and in the Presidium of the all-Russia Conference in 1922. This was not tolerable to
other leading communists and apparently preparations were begun for an anti-Jewish revolt at
the 13th Party Congress (May 1924). There is evidence that a group of members of CK was
planning to drive leading Jews from the Politburo, replacing them with Nogin, Troyanovsky and
others and that only the death of Nogin interrupted the plot. His death, literally on the eve of the
Congress, resulted from an unsuccessful and unnecessary operation for a stomach ulcer by the
same surgeon who dispatched Frunze with an equally unneeded operation a year and a half later.
The Cheka-GPU had second place in terms of real power after the Party. A researcher of
archival material, whom we quoted in Chapter 16, reports interesting statistics on the
composition of the Cheka in 1920, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1925 and 1927. He concludes that the
proportion of national minorities in the apparatus gradually fell towards the mid-Twenties. In the
OGPU as a whole, the proportion of personnel from a national minority fell to 30-35 percent and
to 40-45 percent for those in leadership.” (These figures contrast with 50 percent and 70 percent
respectively during the Red Terror.) However, we observe a decline in the percentage of
Latvians and an increase in the percentage of Jews. The Twenties was a period of significant
influx of Jewish cadres into the organs of the OGPU. The author explains this: “Jews strived to
utilize capabilities not needed in the pre-revolutionary period. With the increasing
professionalism and need for organization, Jews, better than others, were able to meet the needs
of OGPU and the new conditions.”
For example, three of Dzerzhinsky’s four assistants were Jews - G. Yagoda, V.L. Gerson,
and M.M. Lutsky. In the Twenties and Thirties, the leading Chekists circled over the land like
birds of prey flying quickly from cliff to cliff. From the top ranks of the Central Asian GPU off
to Byelorussia and from Western Siberia to the North Caucasus, from Kharkov to Orenburg and
from Orel to Vinnitza—there was a perpetual whirlwind of movement and change. And the
lonely voices of those surviving witnesses could only speak much later, without precise reference
to time, of the executioners whose names flashed by them. The personnel, the deeds and the
power of the Cheka were completely secret.
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For the 10th anniversary of the glorious Cheka we read in a newspaper a formal order
signed by the omnipresent Unshlicht (from 1921 – deputy head of Cheka, from 1923 - member
of Revvoensovet, from 1925 - Deputy Narkom of the Navy). In it, Yagoda was rewarded for
particularly valuable service, for “sacrifice in the battle with counterrevolution”; also given
awards were M. Trilisser (distinguished for his “devotion to the revolution and untiring
persecution of its enemies”) as well as 32 Chekists who had not been before the public until then.
Each of them with the flick of a finger could destroy anyone of us! Among them were Jakov
Agranov (for the work on all important political trials - and in the future he will orchestrate the
trials of Zinoviev, Kamenev, the Industrial Party Trial, and others; Zinovy Katznelson, Matvey
Berman (transferred from Central Asia to the Far East) and Lev Belsky (transferred from the Far
East to Central Asia).
There were several new names: Lev Zalin, Lev Meyer, Leonid Bull (dubbed “warden of
Solovki”), Simeon Gendin, Karl Pauker. Some were already known to only a few, but now the
people would get to know them. In this jubilee newspaper issue we can find a large image of
slick Menzhinsky with his faithful deputy Yagoda and a photograph of Trilisser. Shortly
afterward, another twenty Chekists were awarded with the order of the Red Banner, and again
we see a motley company of Russians, Latvians, and Jews, the latter in the same proportions,
around one-third.
Some of them were avoiding publicity. Simeon Schwartz was director of the Ukrainian
Cheka. A colleague of his, Yevsei Shirvindt, directed the transport of prisoners and convoys
throughout the USSR. Naturally, such Chekists as Grimmeril Heifetz (a spy from the end of the
Civil War to the end of WWII) and Sergei Spigelglas, a Chekist from 1917 who, through his
work as a spy, rose to become director of the Foreign Department of the NKVD and a two-time
recipient of the honorary title of distinguished Chekist, worked out of the public eye. Careers of
others, like Albert Stromin-Stroyev, were less impressive (he conducted interrogations of
scientists during the Academy trial in 1929-31.)
David Azbel remembers the Nakhamkins, a family of Hasidic Jews from Gomel. (Azbel
himself was imprisoned because of snitching by the younger family member, Lev.) “The
revolution threw the Nakhamkins onto the crest of a wave. They thirsted for the revenge on
everyone—aristocrats, the wealthy, Russians, few were left out. This was their path to self-
realization. It was no accident that fate led the offspring of this glorious clan to the Cheka, GPU,
NKVD and the prosecutor’s office. To fulfill their plans, the Bolsheviks needed rabid people and
this is what they got with the Nakhamkins. One member of this family, Roginsky, achieved
brilliant heights as Deputy Prosecutor for the USSR, but during the Stalinist purges was
imprisoned, as were many, and became a cheap stool pigeon. The others were not so well known.
They changed their last name to one more familiar to the Russian ear and occupied high places in
the Organs.”
Unshlict did not change his name to one more familiar to the Russian ear. See, this Slavic
brother became truly a father of Russians: a warplane built with funds of farmer mutual aid
societies (that is on the last dabs of money extorted from peasants) was named after him. No
doubt, farmers could not even pronounce his name and likely thought that this Pole was a Jew.
Indeed, this reminds us that the Jewish issue does not explain the devastation of
revolution, albeit it places a heavy hue on it. As it was also hued by many other unpronounceable
names from Polish Dzerzhinsky and Eismont to Latvian Vatsetis. And what if we looked into the
Latvian issue? Apart from those soldiers who forced the dissolution of the Russian Constituent
Assembly and who later provided security for the Bolshevik leaders during the entire Civil War,
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we find many high-placed Latvian Bolsheviks. Gekker suppressed the uprising in Yaroslavl
Guberniya. Among others, there were Rudzutak, Eikhe, Eikhmans from Solovki, M. Karklin, A.
Kaktyn, R. Kisis, V. Knorin, A. Skundre (one of those who suppressed the Tambov Uprising);
Chekists Petere, Latsis, and an “honorary Chekist” Lithuanian I. Yusis. This thread can lead
directly to 1991 (Pugo…) And what if we separate Ukrainians from Russians (as demanded by
the Ukrainians these days)? We will find dozens of them at the highest posts of Bolshevik
hierarchy, from its conception to the very end.
No, power was not Jewish power then. Political power was internationalist, and its ranks
were to the large extent Russian. But under its multi-hued internationalism it united in an anti-
Russian front against a Russian state and Russian traditions.
In view of the anti-Russian orientation of power and the multinational makeup of the
executioners, why, in Ukraine, Central Asia and the Baltics did the people think it was Russians
who had enslaved them? Because they were alien. A destroyer from one’s own nation is much
closer than a destroyer from an alien tribe. And while it is a mistake to attribute the ruin and
destruction to nationalist chauvinism, at the same time in Russia in the Twenties the inevitable
question hanging in the air that was posed many years later by Leonard Schapiro: why was it
highly likely that anyone unfortunate enough to fall into the hands of the Cheka would go before
a Jewish interrogator or be shot by a Jew?
Yet the majority of modern writers fail to even acknowledge these questions. Often
Jewish authors thoughtlessly and meticulously comply and publish vast lists of Jewish leadership
of the time. For example, see how proudly the article Jews in the Kremlin, published in the
journal Alef, provides a list of the highest Soviet officials-Jews for 1925. It listed eight out of
twelve directors of Gosbank. The same level of Jewish representation was found among top trade
union leaders. And it comments: “We do not fear accusations. Quite opposite—it is active Jewish
participation in governing the state that helps to understand why state affairs were better then
than now, when Jews at top positions are as rare as hen’s teeth.” Unbelievably, that was written
in 1989.
Regarding the army, one Israeli scholar painstakingly researched and proudly published a
long list of Jewish commanders of the Red Army, during and after the Civil War. Another Israeli
researcher published statistics obtained from the 1926 census to the effect that while Jews made
up 1.7 percent of the male population in the USSR, they comprised 2.1 percent of the combat
officers, 4.4 percent of the command staff, 10.3 percent of the political leadership and 18.6
percent of military doctors.
And what did the West see? If the government apparatus could operate in secret under the
communist party, which maintained its conspiratorial secrecy even after coming to power,
diplomats were on view everywhere in the world. At the first diplomatic conferences with
Soviets in Geneva and the Hague in 1922, Europe could not help but notice that Soviet
delegations and their staff were mostly Jewish. Due to the injustice of history, the long and
successful career of Boris Yefimovich Stern is now completely forgotten (he wasn’t even
mentioned in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (GSE) of 1971). Yet he was the second most
important assistant to Chicherin during Genoa Conference, and later at Hague Conference, and
still later he led Soviet delegation during longstanding demilitarization negotiations. He was also
a member of Soviet delegation at the League of Nations. Stern was ambassador in Italy and
Finland and conducted delicate negotiations with the Finns before the Soviet-Finnish war.
Finally, from 1946 to 1948 he was the head of the Soviet delegation at UN. And he used to be a
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longstanding lecturer at the High Diplomatic School (at one point during “anti-cosmopolitan”
purges he was fired but in 1953 he was restored at that position).
An associate of Chicherin, Leon Haikis worked for many years in the Narkomat of the
Foreign Affairs (NKID). In 1937 he was sent to a warmer place as ambassador to the embattled
Republican government of Spain (where he directed the Republican side during the Civil War),
but was arrested and removed. Fyodor Rothshtein founded the Communist Party of Great Britain
in 1920, and in that very year he was a member of the Soviet delegation in negotiations with
England! Two years later he represented RSFSR at the Hague conference As Litvinov’s right-
hand man he independently negotiated with ambassadors to Russia in important matters; until
1930 he was in the Presidium of NKID and for 30 years before his death, a professor at the
Moscow State University.
And on the other side of the globe, in southern China, M. Gruzenberg-Borodin had
served for five years when the December 1927 Canton Rebellion against the Kuomintang broke
out. It is now recognized that the revolt was prepared by our Vice Consul, Abram Hassis, who, at
age of 33 was killed by Chinese soldiers. Izvestia ran several articles with the obituaries and the
photographs of “comrades in arms” under Kuibishev, comparing the fallen comrade with highly
distinguished communists like Furmanov and Frunze. In 1922 Gorky told the academic Ipatiev
that 98 percent of the Soviet trade mission in Berlin was Jewish and this probably was not much
of an exaggeration. A similar picture would be found in other Western capitals where the Soviets
were ensconced. The “work” that was performed in early Soviet trade missions is colorfully
described in a book by G.A. Solomon, the first Soviet trade representative in Tallinn, Estonia—
the first European capital to recognize the Bolsheviks. There are simply no words to describe the
boundless theft by the early Bolsheviks in Russia (along with covert actions against the West)
and the corruption of soul these activities brought to their effecters.
Shortly after Gorky’s conversation with Ipatiev he was criticized in the Soviet press for
an article where he reproached the Soviet government for its placement of so many Jews in
positions of responsibility in government and industry. He had nothing against Jews per se, but,
departing from views he expressed in 1918, he thought that Russians should be in charge. And
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