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2.2 The importance in the classroom situation ,to make the best possible environment for the weaker students .
The preceding sections have shown that teachers’ beliefs and practices and the perceived learning environment vary between countries, between schools and – most notably – within schools. This section aims at explaining the variance between and within schools. It does not report cross-country comparisons but associations between the individual background, the school context, teachers’ beliefs and practices and the learning environment which are consistently found in a large number of countries. Based on the theoretical framework (Figure 4.1), the analysis starts by examining the association of teachers’ background variables with teachers’ beliefs and practices. It then looks at associations between classroom and school background variables and the perceived learning environment and the effects of professional development on teachers’ beliefs and practices. Finally it examines associations between teachers’ beliefs and, practices, the learning environment, and teachers’ job satisfaction. The results will help to explore the complex relations among teachers’ beliefs and practices and classroom and school variables, to see some pattern in them, and to indicate further research possibilities. The great advantage of this analysis, as compared to previous research, is to have covered in parallel 23 educational systems and cultures. The fact that a number of results are the same across countries is by no means trivial; it can help identify issues that educational policy needs to deal with in all countries and internationally. Some implications for policy making are discussed in the final section. The results presented in the remainder of this chapter are generated from a series of statistical regressions analyses (see Box 4.4). Tables 4.3 to 4.14 highlight the variables that were statistically significant in these regressions, with a plus sign indicating a significant positive relation and a minus sign indicating a significant negative relation. Where no significant relation was found, the cell in the table is blank. Tables containing the regression coefficients are available on line.
In addition to the research discussed in Chapter 4 showing the linkages between self-efficacy and teachers’ actions, Ross (1998) analysed its association with teachers’ actions in the classroom; its influence on how they interact with students, their performance expectations, and their classroom management practices. In the health sector, a number of survey instruments6 have been used to measure links between health and self-efficacy. In a number of instances, they have been used to measure reductions in productivity associated with specific diseases or to assess the impact of an illness on the workplace and the effect of the treatment for that illness upon productivity (Prasad et al., 2004). Such measures are used in health research to complement indicators of the direct costs of ill health upon productivity which are more easily quantifiable such as the number of days of work missed. Prasad et al. (2004) reviewed the validity and reliability of the survey instruments used in a number of these studies across different industries and workplaces and concluded that they can be used to show effects upon productivity. A number of studies have shown that self-efficacy is related to productivity and can contribute to efforts to better measure productivity in organisations (e.g. Frayne and Latham, 1987). Lema and Agrusa (2006) found in a case study in the hospitality industry that self-efficacy accounted for 13% of the variance in self-directed learning. Self-efficacy has also been found to be related to the use of technology in the workplace (Hill et al., 1987). Organisational psychology research provides evidence that supports the importance of studying self-efficacy as a factor in the ability of workers to adapt to diverse and pluralistic workplaces. Those with high levels of selfefficacy tend to do their own performance monitoring and assessment in order to improve, rather than relying only on external supervisory practices. Moreover, high levels of self-efficacy were found to influence abilities to regulate and assess responses and handle volatile situations, and to adjust to a new organisational environment (Combs, 2002; Weiss, 1978; Jones, 1986). Chen et al. (1998) found a relationship between self-efficacy and an intended career in entrepreneurship. Beliefs of self-efficacy for innovation and risk taking were found to differentiate entrepreneurs from managers, as well as founders from non-founders. Student self-efficacy has also been found to be linked to performance. Results from a meta-analytic study of student performance, which analysed 36 comparable studies, show evidence of a relationship between self-efficacy and academic behaviour (Multon et al., 1991). The PISA 2006 index of students’ self-efficacy in science measured their belief in their ability to handle tasks effectively and overcome difficulties with a oneunit increase in the index found to correspond to a performance difference of at least 20 points (OECD, 2007). PISA 2003 also showed a positive relationship between students’ concept of self-efficacy in mathematics and their performance, where a one-unit increase in the index corresponded to a performance increase of 47 points (OECD, 2004). Hocevar (2009) analysed factors relating to achievement of mathematically gifted high school students and showed a positive relationship between self-efficacy and self-regulated learning and achievement in maths and a strong negative relationship between self-efficacy and the level of worry felt by students. Given these findings it is assumed that teachers’ self-efficacy can have numerous implications for school education as it is an indicator not only of aspects of productivity but also of how teachers act in the classroom. Given the many findings on the positive impact of self-efficacy on various organisational factors, teachers’ selfefficacy should also affect school culture and the operations of effective schools. Teachers with a high level of self-efficacy in diversified environments may be more likely to adapt to and moderate dynamics in schools whose students come from different environments or present particular challenges. Chapter 4 demonstrates the positive correlation between classroom disciplinary climate and reported self-efficacy.
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