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Words of the Indo-European origin. These words have cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages and form the oldest layer. Words belonging to this layer fall into definite semantic groups and express the most vital, important and frequently used concepts:
-kinship terms( mother ,father ,son)
-words naming the most important objects and phenomena of nature(sun ,moon, star)
-names of animals and plants(goose ,wolf ,cow ,tree)
-words denoting parts of human body( eye, foot ,heart)
-words naming concrete physical properties and qualities(hard ,slow, red ,white)
-numerals from one to a hundred( one, two..)
-some of the most frequent verbs( bear ,do ,sit, stand)
2) Words of the Common Germanic origin. The Common Germanic stock includes words having parallels in German, Norwegian, Dutch, and Icelandic. It contains a great number of semantic groups.
-nouns denoting parts of the human body( heart arm finger)
-nouns denoting period of time (summer winter time)
-words naming natural phenomena(storm rain ice sea)
- words denoting artifacts and materials( bridge house shop)
- words denoting abstract notions( care hope need life)
- names of animals and plants(goose ,wolf ,cow ,tree)
-adverbs(down out before)
3) English words proper. English words proper do not have cognates in other languages. These words are few and stand quite alone in the vocabulary system of Indo-European languages e.g. bird boy, girl, lady.
4.The etymology of Eng.words. Borrowings.
Etymology is a brunch of linguistics that studies the origin and history of words tracing them to the earliest determinable source. English lang-ge owes its exceptionally large vocabulary to its ability to borrow and absorbed new words from outside. For.ex. words atomic, jeans, perestroyka have been commonly used during 20th century and they have been taken from Italian, Hindi, Greek and Russian. The Eng. Vocabulary has been enriched throughout history from different foreign lang-ges. A borrowing is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of Eng. lang-ge. The process of borrowing words has been doing on thousands years. 70-80% of the eng. vocab-ry consists of borrowed words because of specific conditions of the eng. lang-ge development. When the Normans crossed over from France to conquer English in 1066 most of Eng. people spoke Old Eng. or Anglo-Saxon. The Normans spoke a lang-ge that was a mixture of Latin and French. The Normans gave such words as city, palace. The Anglo-Saxon: town, ring. The most important influence came from Latin ( transport, evidence, animal, create). There are practically no limits to the kinds of words that are borrowed. Words are employed as symbols for every part of culture. Such words become completely absorbed into the system , so they are not recognized by the speakers of the lang-ge as foreign. Thus there are 2 main problems connected with the vocab-ry of the lang-ge: 1) the origin of the words, 2) the development in the language. The etymological structure of the Eng. vocab-ry consists of the native and borrowed elements.
Borrowings – words from other languages is characteristic of English throughout its history. Mostly they are words from Romanic origin(Latin, French, Italian, Spanish).Borrowed words are different from nature by their phonetic morphological structure and also by their grammatical forms.
Borrowing can be classified according to different criteria:
1.According to the aspect which is borrowed.
2.According to the degree of assimilation.
3.According to the language from which the word was borrowed.
Borrowings enter the L. through 2 ways:oral and written speech.
Oral B.took place in Early period of history. Nowadays written B.have importance.
B.may be direct and indirect. Indirect that is through another L.E.g. French by means of which may Latin words were borrowed. Distinction should be made between the term Source of borrowing(from which L.the loan word was taken into English) and the term Origin of borrowing(to which the word may be traced).
Paper – Fr papier(source) – Lat papyrus – Gr papuros(origin)
Clas-tion of B. according to the borrowed aspect.
1.Phonetic borrowings.Sometimes they are called words of borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation, meaning. Then they undergo assimilation.(In some cases spelling is changed)
- labour, travel. Chair, people – from French
-apparatchik , nomenclature , sputnik – from Russian
- bank, soprano,duet – from Italian
2.Translation loans – are word-for-word , morpheme-for-morpheme.In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign L.but it is expressed by native lexical units.
- fair sex(Fr); living space(Ger); Sunday/solis dais(Lat)
3.Semantic borrowings – are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the L.is borrowed.It can happen when you have two relative L-es.(Pioneer)
4.Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur into the L., so the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people, speaking the borrowing L.That is why there are a lot of words-hybrids. (Goddess,Beautiful)
Due to the process of borrowings the Eng.word-stock was replenished by international words – words of identical origin that occur in several L.: antenna,music,radio.
Clas-tion according to the degree of assimilation.
The degree of assim-tion depends on the following factors:
1.From what group of L.the word was borrowed
2.In what way the word is borrowed.
3.How often the borrowing is used in the L.
4.How long the word lives in the L.
1. Completely assimilated borrowed words. They follow all morphological, phonetical and orphological standarts. Comp.assim.words are found in all the layers of older borrowings.
-cheese(the first layer of Latin borrowings)
-husband(Scan)
-face(Fr)
2. Partially assimilated borrowed words. They are subdivided into four groups:
a)Non-assimilated semantically (sari, sombrero,shah,kvass)Because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country.
b)Non-assimilated grammatically. E.g. nouns borrowed from Latin and Greek have kept the original plural forms: crisis-crises, phenomenon-phenomena.
c)Non-assimilated phonetically: some of French borrowings keep the accent on the final syllable: machine, cartoon, police.
d)Not completely assimilated graphically: phoneme, morpheme(ph-f); ballet,buffet(Fr);Psycology(ps-s)
3.Barbarisms or unassimilated borrowings.This group includes words from other L.used in conversation or in writing but non-assimilated in any way.E.g.: addio,ciao(It)-‘good-bye’
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