1. The Subject matter of Text linguistics

DEEP AND SURFACE STRUCTURE OF AN ENGLISH TEXT
Deep structure (in generative linguistics) is a way of representing a sentence. The deep structure allows you to reflect the semantic proximity of a number of sentences that contain the same lexical units and differ from each other only in some grammatical meanings. So, for example, a single deep structure was postulated for the sentences "Beavers build dams" and "Beavers build dams". The Deep Structure is formally represented as a so-called component tree, or as a tokenized bracket notation [[[beavers]N]NP[[build]V[[dams]N]NP]VP]S. Both graphic means represent the syntactic structure of the sentence.
The deep structure in generative linguistics is opposed to the so-called surface structure, which, using the same formal means, gives a more specific description of the syntactic structure of each individual sentence. To move from the deep structure to the surface structure, special restructuring rules are used - transformations that preserve the lexical composition of the sentence, but can change grammatical meanings, rearrange words, add or remove some auxiliary words. For example, the surface structure of the sentence "Beavers build dams" is obtained from the deep structure shared with the sentence "Beavers build dams" by a so-called passivation transformation. For the sentence "Beavers build dams," the surface structure is the same as the deep structure, because this sentence is a nuclear sentence.
Deep structures appear as a result of the application of special formal rules of substitution, which together form the basic component of a transformational generative grammar.
Deep structure is the first theoretical construct (still quite close to the meaning) on ​​the way to the final design of the sentence to the form of a sequence of words in the corresponding graphic notation or in the corresponding phonetic (sound) embodiment.
In the 20th century, the concept of deep structure was the subject of discussions in generative linguistics, which led to the emergence of separate areas in which this concept has undergone significant changes. For example, in generative semantics, the concept of deep structure gave way to the concept of semantic structure, which reflected both the semantic and syntactic structure of the sentence. The "depth" of the semantic structure assumed a unity of representation for a series of sentences with the same meaning, although, possibly, with different vocabulary, and the transformations directly rebuilt the semantic structure into a superficial one.
In the standard theory of N. Chomsky, the concept of a deep structure continued to be interpreted mainly as a syntactic structure, however, the growth of interest in semantics led in this theory to an increase in the abstractness of the description and, in particular, to distinguishing with the help of special abstract elements of such deep structures that previously merged into one, for example, deep structures for corresponding affirmative, negative, imperative, and interrogative sentences.
When considering analogies between thinking and language, it is necessary to dwell on the question of the surface and deep structures of language. The universal theory of grammars, based on the concepts of deep and surface structures of the language and the rules for transforming one into another, was proposed in the 50-60s of this century by Noam Chomsky. To clarify these terms, consider a simple phrase such as "football player hit the ball." It is clear that the meaning of this phrase will not change in principle if it takes the form "the ball was hit by a football player", "the football player hit the ball" or "the ball was hit by a football player", etc.
The variants of the phrase given are examples of various external structures. In some ways, these options are distinguishable from each other, but in theory it is assumed that they all have some common deep structure. For example, such a structure can be a section of a semantic network or simply a graph built on the principle of determining the relationship between the subject group that defines the subject of the action, the predicate group that defines the action, the complement group that defines the object to which the action is directed (Fig. 4.20).
Different ways of walking along the nodes of the graph, in principle, illustrate the transition from one surface structure to another, that is, ways of constructing different surface structures. If we consider "ball" as the subject, then we move on to the phrase "the ball was hit ...", if we replace one action "hit" with another equivalent to "hit", then we move on to the next Surface Structure, etc. .
The ratio of surface and deep structures of the language is important not only for understanding the essence of thought processes, but also for analyzing translation issues. As you know, it is impossible to absolutely accurately translate some text from one language into another. Any translation carries some shades, and shades associated with both the structure of the new language and the mental characteristics of the translator. From here, in particular, comes the very concept of an authorized translation, that is, a translation approved by the author, despite the lack of complete identity.
In this sense, we can assume that a good translation provides some version of the surface structure of the text, while completely preserving its very deep, semantic essence, as they say, preserving the "author's spirit". The situation is similar with the problem of mutual understanding of people. No matter how close people are in relation to their knowledge bases, motivations, ways of perceiving and thinking, emotional characteristics, two people (teacher and student, interlocutors, parents and child, author and reader, husband and wife) are only "in the limit" able to fully understand each other.
The exact and figurative formulation of the problem of people's sociability was given by the poet F. Tyutchev, who said: "A thought uttered is a lie." To illustrate the complexity of comparing the surface and deep structures of language and thinking, we present excerpts from two different versions of the translation of Hamlet's monologue into Russian. Both translations were made by masters who perfectly understood the importance of the meaning of their work, and yet a comparison of their texts reveals a clear difference in the "surface structures" of the translators' languages. The question of which of the translations is closer to the deep structures of the thinking of Shakespeare and his hero, apparently, does not have a final solution, although each reader can give his own answer to it.
The meaning of generative grammar, as well as the meaning of surface and deep structures in thinking, can be illustrated by analyzing the rules for transforming mathematical expressions. Here are some examples of formulas that have exactly the same meaning, but a different form of notation. In posts/! =B and B=A or y = kxx =y/k the right and left parts have a different appearance, although the records themselves contain the same character set. In records like (a+b)2 =а2 + b2 + 2ab and (a+b)2= (a+b)(a+b) the right parts have a different appearance: although these parts contain the same set of variables and constants , these variables and constants are connected by different functional dependencies. Finally, in each of the records of the type tgjc = sinx/cosx, F=ma, the right and left parts contain different character sets (i.e., they have different surface structures), which are converted into each other according to special rules.
The use of semantic networks to illustrate the essence of deep structures is also convenient for the purposes of presenting another important property of language and thinking - the ability to generate surface structures of various types. Indeed, it is impossible even to imagine that all variants of surface structures, having the same and tighter deep structure, are stored in memory. The number of options for any relatively complex phrase is enormous. Thus, the theory of deep structures postulates the existence of generation mechanisms that generate a set of surface structures based on working with the basic deep structure of the phrase.
What is horizontal and vertical arrangement of text?
In horizontal text, the orientation of individual letters (vertical) is orthogonal to the spatial arrangement (horizontal) of letters within the word. Vertical text can affect either the orientation of individual letters or the orthogonal relationship between letter orientation and word orientation.
What is horizontal and vertical reading?
While horizontal flashcard reading proceeds from left to right across the page, vertical flashcard reading changes the direction of eye movements (reading direction) to either top to bottom for rotated clockwise and marquee or bottom to top for rotated counterclockwise.
What is horizontal text?
A visual alignment that goes left to right. For example, this text is horizontal across the screen. In the picture, the X-axis line is the horizontal line.
What is the word for vertical and horizontal?
In this case, I like the term axial to describe a direction that is along the horizontal or vertical axis relative to the current position. Axial - situated around, in the direction of, on, or along an axis.
What is vertical writing?
Vertical writing is used when the writing space is long vertically and narrow horizontally. For example, titles on the spines of books are usually written vertically. When a foreign language film is subtitled into Korean, the subtitles are sometimes written vertically at the right side of the screen.
What is vertical reading?
Purpose: Vertical reading is an adaptive reading strategy sometimes used in homonymous hemianopia. ... Participants read sentences aloud from the Radner Reading Chart horizontally and rotated vertically, to read up and down the line. Words read correctly and the time taken to read each sentence were recorded.
What is a vertical reader?
What is Vertical Reading? Vertical reading takes place when a reader is simply looking at one source, and many times on the first glance, to gather information. The reader is relying solely on the source itself to determine the reliability or validity of information.
Horizontal and vertical reading?
While horizontal flashcard reading proceeds from left to right across the page, vertical flashcard reading changes the direction of eye movements (reading direction) to either top to bottom for rotated clockwise and marquee or bottom to top for rotated counterclockwise.
What is the difference between horizontal type and vertical type tool?
The only difference between the horizontal and vertical type tools is that the horizontal type tool adds text horizontally and the vertical type tool adds text vertically.
What are language materials?
Language material refers to a bibliographic record for an item which is basically textual in nature (whether printed, manuscript, microform, or electronic resource). ... This type of record may be created using either the Books (BK) or Continuing resources (CR) format specifications.
What are language teaching materials?
The Definition of Materials
The term material in language teaching and learning refers to everything used to help teaching language learners (Tomlinson, 1998), and to facilitate teachers and learners in the language learning (Richards and Schmidt, 2002).
What is analysis of teaching and learning materials?
This involves estimating the degree to which the materials (including their accompanying teacher's guides) reflect what is known generally about student learning and effective teaching and, more important, the degree to which they support student learning of the specific knowledge and skills for which a content match ...
What is material development in English language teaching?
'Materials development' refers to all the processes made use of by practitioners who produce and/or use materials for language learning, including materials evaluation, their adaptation, design, production, exploitation and research.
What makes a good language learning materials?
Possibly the most useful tools there are for learning a language are writing implements, such as pens and pencils, and something to write on, such as paper or a notebook. You can use them not only to make notes and lists of vocabulary, phrases, etc, but also to practise writing in your L2.
What is the importance of a good language learning material in language learning?
Instead, as Tomlinson (2016) and Day (2004) put forward, authentic materials provide rich and meaningful exposure to language in use, and they also serve as motivational tools. Thus, textbooks and materials should develop both students' L2 linguistic competence and their social awareness of the language. ...
How does materials affect the teaching and learning process in an English class?
Instructional materials enhance the teaching/learning process by exhibiting information necessary to acquire knowledge and skills. ... The role of instructional materials in the teaching/learning process cannot be overemphasized. They facilitate and encourage self-study or independent study in students.