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Zeugma; the Pun
Zeugma [ ] is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent (соседний) words in the context. Eg She possessed two false teeth and a sympathetic heart. (Genry)/ She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief (Dickens). Zeugma is a strong, and effective device to maintain the purity (чистота) of the primary meaning when the two meanings clash (столкновение).
Pun is another stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase. It is difficult to distingwish between zeugma and the pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one: zeugma –is realization of two meanings with the help of a verb. The pun is more independent. Like any other stylistic device, it must depend on a context.
Thus the title of one of Oscar Wilde's plays, "The Importance of Being Earnest" has a pun in it, inasmuch (поскольку) as the name of the hero and the adjective meaning 'seriously-minded' are both present in our mind. One of the female characters in the play wished to marry a man with the name of Earnest, as it seemed to her to guarantee his serious intentions. Puns are often used in riddles (загадки) and jokes, for example, in this riddle: What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver? (One trains the mind and the other minds the train.)
Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional (обычный) symbols of human emotions. The definite intonation with which interjections are pronounced depends of the sense of the preceding or following sentence. Interjections can be divided into primary and derivative. Primary interjections are generally deprived (лишены дипрАЙвд) of any logical meaning. Derivative (производные) interjections may retain some logical meaning, though this is always suppressed (сдерживать ) by the volume of emotive meaning. Oh! Ah! Bah! Pooh! Gosh! Hush! are primary interjections, though some of them once had logical meaning. 'Heavens!', 'good gracious!', 'dear me!', 'God!', 'Come on!', 'Look here!', 'dear!', 'by the Lord!', 'God knows!', 'Bless me!', 'Humbug!' and many others of this kind are not interjections as such; a better name for them would be exclamatory words and word-combinations generally used as interjections (междометия), their function is that of the interjection. It must be noted here that some adjectives, nouns and adverbs can also take on the function of interjections—for example, such words as terrible!, awful!, great!', wonderful!, splendid!', fine!, man!, boy! Interjections can also be divided into bookish, neutral and colloquial. Bookish: alas увы!, egad ей богу!, Lo!и вдруг!, blark внемли! Neutral: oh!, ah! Bah! Colloquial: ouch! wow! Cool! Bullshit! (бул шит)
The Epithet
The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meanings with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of an object. (Эпитет стилистический прием, основанный на взаимодействии эмоциональные и логические значения с целью придания индивидуального восприятия и оценки объекта.).
The following scheme shows the classification of epithets. Different points of view: 1 semantic 2 structural. 1 associated, unassociated, language ep., speech ep. 2 a) composition (составное): simple, compound, phrase b) distribution: string of ep. (последовательность), reversed ep. (обратный), transferred ep (переданы). We should distinguish epithets from logical attributes. Logical attributes indicate those qualities of the objects which may be regarded as generally recognized.( 'white snow', 'blue skies', 'green grass', etc.). They are not epithets. But the word combinations 'wild wind', 'loud ocean', “pretty woman” are epithets because they are subjectively evaluative (субъективно оценочны). From semantic point of view epithets may be: associated - which point to a feature which is essential to the objects they describe (связанные, которые указывают на особенность, которая имеет важное значение для объектов, которые они описывают ) ('dark forest’, 'careful attention'). Unassociated epithets are attributes used to characterize the object by adding a feature not inherent in it (не присущих ему). ('heart-burning smile', 'voiceless sands'). Language epithets are epithets which have become traditional as they belong to the language-as-system ('bright face', ‘valuable connections' 'sweet smile', 'deep feeling'). The fresh, genuine epithets are called speech epithets.
Structurally, epithets can be viewed from the angle of a) composition and b) distribution (а) состав и б) распределение). Simple epithets are ordinary adjectives. 'Compound epithets are built like compound adjectives. Examples are: 'heart-burning sigh','cloud-shapen giant',curly-headed. The tendency to cram (втискивать) into one language unit as much information as possible has led to new compositional models for epithets which we shall call phrase epithets. But unlike simple and compound epithets, which may have pre- or post-position, phrase epithets are always placed before the nouns they refer to. E.g She was looking at me with a “I-don`t –know-what-you-are-speaking about” expression in her eyes. Phrase epithets are generally followed by the words expression, air, attitude and others which describe behavior or facial expression. The reversed epithet is composed of two nouns linked in a phrase. ("the shadow of a smile"; "a devil of a job" "a dog of a fellow"). Such epithets are metaphorical [ ], because one of the component is a metaphors (shadow, devil, dog)’. From the point of view of the distribution (распределение) we can speak about string of epithets when more than one epithet are used simultaneously. "Such was the background of the wonderful, cruel, enchanting, bewildering, fatal, great city;" /обворожительный, приводящий в смятение, роковой/. O.Henry. Transferred epithets are ordinary logical attributes generally describing the state of a human being, but made to refer to an inanimate object, for example: "sick chamber, sleepless pillow, restless pace, breathless eagerness etc. (Переданные эпитеты - обычно логические признак в целом, описывающий состояние человека, но использованы для обращения к неодушевленным предметам, например: "больной камера, бессонная подушка, беспокойный темп, задыхаясь рвение и т.д.)
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